UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

ANDREW 

SMITH 

HALLIDIE: 

1868 


•->. 


w    ^ 


vk. 


\ 


GAS,  GASOLINE  $  OIL 
ENGINES 

AN    UP-TO-DATE    BOOK    ON    THE    SUBJECT    OF 
EXPLOSIVE     MOTOR    POWER 


DESCRIPTIVE  OF  THE  THEORY  AND  POWER  OF  INTERNAL 

COMBUSTION  ENGINES,  ILLUSTRATING  THEIR 

DESIGN,  CONSTRUCTION,  AND 

OPERATION 


FOR 


STATIONARY,  MARINE,  AND  VEHICLE 
MOTIVE  POWER 


A  WORK   DESIGNED   FOR   THE   GENERAL   INFORMATION   OF   EVERY  ONE 

INTERESTED  IN  THE   NEW  AND   POPULAR   PRIME-MOVER,  AND 

ITS   ADAPTATION  TO  THE   INCREASING   DEMAND   FOR 

A     CHEAP,     SAFE,      AND     EASILY     MANAGED 

MOTIVE   POWER   FOR   ALL   PURPOSES 

Giving  the  Construction  and  details  of  nearly  every  type  of  American 
Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Engine 


tf          OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 
BY   GARDNER    D.    HISCOX,  M?~ 

^*= 

Author  of  "Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  Devices,"  etc.,  etc. 
"Compressed  Air  and  its  Applications,"  etc.,  etc. 

Tenth    Edition.    Reset,    Revised    and    Enlarged 

WITH    312    ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK 
W.    HE^I^EY    <&c    CO. 

132    NASSAU    STREET 
19O2 


HALLIDIE 


COPYRIGHTED,  1897,  COPYRIGHTED,   1898, 

BY  BY 

NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co.  NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co. 


COPYRIGHTED,   I9O2, 
BY 

NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  Co. 


ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL, 
CONDON,  ENGLAND. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


MACGOWAN  &  SLIPPER, 

PRINTERS, 
30  BEEKMAN  STREET,  Ni.w  YORK,  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   TENTH    EDITION. 

The  rapid  progress  in  explosive  motor  design,  and  the  adaptation 
of  this  class  of  prime  movers  to  a  vast  extent  for  almost  every  want 
for  small  and  intermediate  power  purposes  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
has  made  a  demand  for  the  publication  of  more  extensive  details 
and  descriptions  of  motor  working  parts,  and  especially  of  the  hereto- 
fore troublesome  conditions  experienced  in  converting  the  fuel  of 
explosive  combustion  into  its  best  form  for  economical  consumption 
for  power,  and  its  reliable  ignition  and  combustion. 

With  this  view  the  Author  has  revised  the  former  editions  of 
this  work  and  added  much  new  matter  that  shows  progress  in 
design,  especially  in  the  atomizing  and  vaporization  of  fuel  ele- 
ments, together  with  extended  discussions  on  the  management  and 
care  of  explosive  motors,  with  fully  illustrated  and  described  methods 
of  ignition  by  the  electric  current  and  its  generation. 

The  illustrated  details  of  new  Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Vapor 
Motors  and  their  parts,  newly  introduced,  are  in  such  proportions, 
together  with  the  table  of  sizes  of  parts  of  motors  of  various  powers, 
has  been  made  so  clear  that  almost  any  mechanical  engineer  or 
amateur  draughtsman  should  be  able  to  make  the  working  drawings 
for  an  explosive  motor  for  any  kind  of  fuel  in  use  for  such  purpose. 

The  new  fuel,  Alcohol,  and  its  combination  with  gasoline  for 
motive  power  is  making  an  extended  and  economic  exhibit  in  Europe 
and  only  requires  legal  regulation  and  freedom  from  revenue  tax  to 
make  it  a  most  acceptable  material  of  explosive  power  for  motor 
service  in  the  United  States. 

The  great  increase  of  late  in  the  number  of  motor  builders  with 
improved  and  special  designs  of  motors  for  vehicle,  launch  and  yacht 
propulsion,  and  as  auxiliary  power  for  yachts  and  fishing  boats,  has 
been  the  means  of  largely  increasing  the  range  of  usefulness  of  this 
modern  power.  Its  adaptation  to  the  successful  operation  of  bicycles 
has  become  a  fact  and  is  shown  by  illustrated  descriptions  of  the 
latest  models. 

The  ideal  of  a  prime  moving  power,  so  cheap,  so  safe,  and  so 
easily  managed,  that  is  now  in  successful  operation,  and  that  has 
culminated  in  its  real  growth  in  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  marks 
an  epoch  for  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  that  is  a  marvel 
in  promoting  our  industries  by  the  use  of  this  new  and  economical 
power. 

In  view  of  the  progress  of  the  subject  matter  of  this  book  the  pub- 
lishers have  therefore  reset  this  entire  work,  bringing  it  up  to  date. 

SEPTEMBER,  1902.  GARDNER  D.  Hiscox. 


PREFACE. 


THE  entire  lack  of  literature  on  explosive  motors  made  in 
the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  have 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  our  journals  and  magazines,  and 
the  constant  inquiry  for  information -on  the  subject,  has  in- 
duced the  author  of  this  work  to  endeavor  to  present  in  practical 
shape  for  the  ordinary  reader  the  principles  and  practice  of  this. 
class  of  motors  as  they  are  manufactured  in  our  own  country. 
German,  French,  and  English  books  on  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil 
engines  scarcely  allude  to  American  engines  or  American 
practice. 

The  author  has  been  favored  by  a  large  number  of  explo- 
sive-motor builders  with  illustrations  and  details  of  motors  of 
their  manufacture.  He  hopes  that,  by  the  publication  of  his 
work,  many  inquiries  will  be  answered,  and  that  seekers  for 
small  power  will  find  in  the  explosive  motor  the  economical 
prime-mover  they  desire. 

GARDNER  D.   Hiscox. 

JANUARY  ist,  1897, 

PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

THE  early  exhaustion  of  the  first  edition  has  verified  the 
author's  prediction  that  there  was  need  of  a  work  of  this  charac- 
ter. The  second  edition  has  been  corrected,  revised,  and  con- 
tains much  new  matter,  including  data  relating  to  the  adaptation 
of  these  motors  to  vehicles  and  launches,  a  branch  of  the  subject 
that  is  of  great  and  growing  interest. 

The  patents  of  1897  under  their  proper  heading  have  been 
added,  and,  to  forestall  inquiry,  a  list  of  the  names  and  addresses 
of  the  builders  of  explosive  motors  in  the  United  States,  so  far 
as  they  could  be  ascertained,  has  also  been  appended. 

THE  AUTHOR. 
APRIL  i5th,   1898. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  i.  PAGE 

Introductory,        .         ...         .         .         .         .         .         .  i 

Historical,  .  .         .         .         ..'..      .         .         .     •'..;•      3 

CHAPTER  II. 

Theory  of  the  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine,        .      *^v      .         .         / 

CHAPTER  III. 

Utilization  of  Heat  and  Efficiency  in  Gas  Engines,       .         .         18 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Heat  Efficiencies,  .'        .         .         .         .         .         .         .25 

CHAPTER  V. 

Retarded  Combustion  and  Wall-Cooling,  .         ..        .         30 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Causes  of  Loss  and  Inefficiency  in  Explosive  Motors,        ' .       38 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Economy  of  the  Gas  Engine  for  Electric-Lighting,   -.  '      .         42 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

The  Material  of  Power  in  Explosive  Engines,  Gas,  Petro- 
leum Products,  and  Acetylene  Gas,  Alcohol,       .         .       47 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Carburetters,  Atomizers  and  Vapor  Gas  for  Explosive  Mo- 
tors,     .         .         .         .         .        '.         .         .         .         .         60 

CHAPTER    X. 

Cylinder  Capacity  and  Dimensions  of  Gas  and  Gasoline 

Engines,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         81 

Mufflers  on  Gas  Engines,      ...         .         .         .         .88 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI.  PAGE 

Governors  and  Valve  Gear,  .  .  9° 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Igniters  and  Exploders,  Hot  Tube,  Electric,  Jump  Spark, 

Hammer  Spark,  Induction  Coil  and  Dynamo,  103 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

Cylinder  Lubrication,         ...  146 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

On  the  Management  of  Explosive  Motors,         .  .149 

Pointers  on  Explosive  Motors, 156 

CHAPTER    XV. 

The  Measurement  of  Power  by  Prony  Brakes,  Dynamom- 
eters and  Indicators,  Speed  Measure,       .         .        ^T"  160 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

Explosive  Engine  Testing,         .         .         .         .         .         .          173 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Types  of  the  Explosive  Motor,  .         .         .         .         .178 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Various  Types  of  Stationary  Engines,  Marine  and  Vehicle 

Motors,  ........         196 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Various  Types  of  Stationary  Engines,  Marine  and  Vehicle 

Motors ;  Continued,         ......         324 

CHAPTER  XX. 

United  States  Patents  on  Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Engines, 

and  their  Adjuncts — 1875  to  July  ist,  1902,  inclusive,        392 


^,         OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES, 


CHAPTER   I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

MUCH  attention  is  now  being  given  by  mechanical  engineers 
to  the  economical  results  developed  in  the  working  of  gas,  gas- 
oline, and  oil  engines  for  higher  powers  from  producer  and 
other  cheap  gases.  In  an  economical  sense,  for  small  powers 
steam  has  been  left  far  behind. 

It  now  becomes  a  question  as  to  how  to  adapt  the  design  of 
the  new  prime-movers  to  a  wider  range  of  usefulness. 

The  best  steam  engines  now  made  run  with  a  consumption 
of  about  one  and  three-fourth  pounds  of  coal  per  horse-power 
per  hour ;  while  from  two  and  one -half  to  seven  pounds  is  the 
•cost  of  power  per  horse-power  per  hour  in  the  various  kinds  of 
engines  now  in  use.  This  only  covers  the  cost  of  fuel ;  the  at- 
tendance required  in  the  use  of  small  steam  power  is  often  far 
greater  in  cost  than  the  fuel. 

When  we  come  to  require  the  larger  powers  by  steam,  in 
which  economy  may  be  obtained  by  compounding  and  condens- 
ing, the  facility  for  obtaining  the  requisite  water-supply  is 
often  a  bar  to  its  use.  The  direction  in  which  lies  the  line  of 
improvement  for  larger  powers  with  the  utmost  economy  is  as 
yet  a  mooted  point  of  discussion  in  explosive  motor  engi- 
neering. 

The  expansion  of  single-cylinder  dimensions  involves  prac- 
tical problems  in  the  progress  of  ignition  of  the  charge,  as 
well  as  the  thoroughness  of  mixture  of  the  combustibles,  and 


2  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  interference  of  the  products  of  the  previous  combustion  by 
producing  areas  of  imperfect  or  non-combustion  or  "  stratifica- 
tion," as  treated  in  foreign  publications. 

The  enlargement  of  cylinder  area  is  a  source  of  engine-fric- 
tion economy,  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  multiplication  of  cyl- 
inders involves  numbers  and  complexity  of  moving  parts, 
which  go  to  make  disparity  between  the  indicated  and  brake 
horse-power,  which  is  the  measure  of  machine  efficiency 

An  impulse  at  every  stroke,  so  desirable  in  an  explosive  mo- 
tor and  so  satisfactorily  carried  out  in  the  steam  engine  in  con- 
nection with  the  compound  system,  seems  to  have  as  yet  no 
counterpart  in  the  explosive  motor.  Condensation  is  impossi- 
ble, and  the  trials  of  explosion  at  every  stroke  in  European  en- 
gines have  not  proved  satisfactory  in  service,  and  in  order  to 
accomplish  the  desired  result  resort  has  been  had  to  duplicat- 
ing single-acting  cylinders.  This  class  of  explosive  engines 
seems  to  fill  the  bill  in  effect;  yet  the  complication  of  a  two- 
cylinder  engine  as  a  moving  mechanism  must  compete  with  a 
single-cylinder  steam  engine. 

The  principal  types  of  explosive  motors  seem  to  have  gone 
through  a  series  of  practical  trials  during  the  past  thirty  years, 
which  have  finally  reduced  the  principles  of  action  to  a  few  per- 
manent forms  in  the  design  of  motors,  that  show  by  long-con- 
tinued use  the  prospect  of  their  staying  qualities  and  their  effi- 
ciency ;  for  these  will  no  doubt  be  the  principal  points  in  the 
final  judgment  of  purchasers  in  the  selection  of  motive  power. 
For  a  gas,  gasoline,  or  oil  explosive  power  to  approximate  an 
ideal  standard  as  a  prime-mover,  it  should  be  simple  in  design, 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  the  parts  must  be  readily  accessi- 
ble, the  ignition  of  the  charge  must  be  positive,  the  governing 
close,  the  engine  must  run  quietly,  and  must  be  durable  and 
economical  in  the  use  of  fuel.  These  points  of  excellence  have 
been  striven  for  by  many  designers  and  builders,  with  varying 
success.  But  to  get  the  entire  combination  without  the  sacri- 
fice of  some  good  point  is  not  an  easy  matter. 


INTRODUCTORY.  3 

But  for  all,  the  internal  combustion  engine  has  come  seem- 
ingly like  an  avalanche  of  a  decade ;  but  it  has  come  to  stay, 
to  take  its  well-deserved  position  among  the  poweis  for  aiding 
labor. 

HISTORICAL. 

Although  the  ideal  principle  of  explosive  power  was  con- 
ceived some  two  hundred  years  since,  and  experiments  made 
with  gunpowder  as  the  explosive  element,  it  was  not  until  the 
last  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  idea  took  a  pat- 
entable  shape,  and  not  until  about  1826  (Brown's  gas- vacuum 
engine)  that  a  further  progress  was  made  in  England  by  con- 
densing the  product;^  of  combustion  by  a  jet  of  water,  thus  cre- 
ating a  partial  vacuum. 

Brown's  was  probably  the  first  explosive  engine  that  did  real 
work.  It  was  clumsy  and  unwieldy  and  was  soon  relegated  to 
its  place  among  the  failures  of  previous  experiments.  No  ap- 
proach to  active  explosive  effect  in  a  cylinder  was  reached  in 
practice,  although  many  ingenious  designs  were  described, 
until  about  1838  and  the  following  years.  Barnett's  engine  in 
England  was  the  first  attempt  to  compress  the  charge  before 
exploding.  From  this  time  on  to  about  1860  many  patents 
were  issued  in  Europe  and  a  few  in  the  United  States  for  gas 
engines,  but  the  progress  was  slow,  and  its  practical  introduc- 
tion for  ordinary  power  purposes  came  with  spasmodic  effect 
and  low  efficiency. 

From  1860  on,  practical  improvement  seems  to  have  been 
made  and  the  Lenoir  -motor  was  produced  in  France  and 
brought  to  the  United  States.  It  failed  to  meet  expectations, 
and  was  soon  followed  by  further  improvements  in  the  Hugon 
motor  in  France  (1862)  followed  by  Beau  de  Rocha's  four-cycle 
idea,  which  has  been  slowly  developed  through  a  long  series  of 
experimental  trials  by  different  inventors.  In  the  hands  of 
Otto  and  Langdon  a  further  progress  was  made,  and  numerous 
patents'  were  issued  in  England,  France,  and  Germany,  and 


4  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

followed  up  by  an  increasing  interest  in  the  United  States  with 
a  few  patents. 

From  1870  on,  improvements  seem  to  have  advanced  at  a 
steady  rate,  and  largely  in  the  valve  gear  and  precision  of  gov- 
erning for  variable  load. 

The  early  idea  of  the  necessity  of  slow  combustion  was  a 
great  drawback  in  the  advancement  of  efficiency,  and  the  sug- 
gestions of  de  Rocha,  in  1862,  did  not  take  root  as  a  prophetic 
truth  until  many  failures  and  years  of  experience  had  taught  the 
fundamental  axiom  that  rapidity  of  action  in  both  combustion 
and  expansion  was  the  basis  of  success  in  explosive  motors. 

With  this  truth  and  the  demand  for  small  and  safe  prime- 
movers,  the  manufacture  of  gas  engines  increased  in  Europe  and 
America  at  a  more  rapid  rate,  and  improvements  in  perfecting  the 
details  of  this  cheap  and  efficient  prime-mover  have  finally  raised 
it  to  the  dignity  of  a  standard  motor  and  a  rival  of  the  steam  en- 
gine for  small  and  intermediate  powers,  with  a  prospect  of  largely 
increasing  its  individual  units  to  the  hundred,  if  not  to  the  thou- 
sand, horse-power  in  a  single  engine.  The  efforts  of  Otto,  in  Ger- 
many, in  developing  the  four-cycle  type,  have  given  his  name  to 
the  compression  engine,  which  is  a  well-deserved  tribute  to 
genius. 

The  fourteen  hundred  patents  issued  during  the  past  thirty 
years  in  the  United  States  have  had  a  simplifying  tendency  in 
construction,  and  have  brought  the  efficiency  of  the  gas,  gasoline, 
and  oil  explosive  engines  to  their  present  high  degree  of  economy 
and  widespread  adoption  as  a  prime-mover. 

In  this  work  the  various  changes  that  the  gas  engine  has  under- 
gone in  design  in  its  European  development  are  not  considered  es- 
sential to  American  readers,  as  the  best  European  ideas  have  been 
adapted  here  with  the  spirit  of  American  enterprise  in  perfecting 
details  of  construction  and  the  application  of  the  best  material  for 
wear  in  all  its  parts ;  so  that  in  representing  as  many  engines  of 
American  manufacture  as  can  be  obtained,  the  whole  range  of 
practical  design  will  be  sufficiently  illustrated  and  described  as  to 


INTRODUCTORY.  5 

give  a  fairly  good  explanation  of  their  operation  to  the  general 
reader  and  the  users  of  American  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  engines. 

The  intense  interest  manifested  by  American  engineers  and  in- 
ventors in  the  new  motive  power  is  well  shown  in  the  progress  of 
patents  issued  during  the  past  twenty-five  years.  In  1875  3  parents 
were  issued  in  the  United  States  for  gas  engines;  1876,  3  patents; 
1877,  5  patents;  1878,  I  patent;  1879,  6  patents;  1880-81,  7  each 
year;  1882,  14  patents;  1883  was  a  booming  year  in  gas-engine 
invention — no  less  than  40  patents  were  issued  that  year,  followed 
by  36  patents  in  1884  and  40  patents  in  1885,  46  in  1886,  25  in 
1887,  31  in  1888,  and  58  in  1889,  with  an  average  of  about  80 
patents  per  annum  during  the  past  thirteen  years,  over  1,400  hav- 
ing been  issued  up  to  July  1st,  1902. 

The  application  of  the  gasoline  .motor  to  marine  propulsion 
and  to  the  horseless  vehicle,  the  tricycle  and  bicycle,  has  had  a 
most  stimulating  effect  in  adapting  ways  and  means  for  applying 
this  power  to  so  many  uses.  Even  aerial  navigation  has  come  in 
for  its  share  in  motor  patents. 

Although  the  denser  population  of  Europe  claims  a  very 
large  representation  of  explosive  motors  in  use  for  all  purposes, 
the  manufacture  in  the  United  States  is  fast  forging  ahead  in 
its  output  of  explosive  motor  power,  for  there  are  now  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  establishments  in  the  United  States 
engaged  in  their  manufacture,  and  the  motors  in  operation  num- 
ber many  thousands.  Their  safety  and  easy  management  as 
well  as  their  economy  have  made  in  their  adoption  as  agricultural 
helpers  a  marvellous  inroad  on  the  old-fashioned  hand  and  horse 
power.  Their  later  developed  adaptability  as  a  means  for  gen- 
erating electricity  for  electric  lighting  and  transmission  of  power 
is  fast  expanding  the  use  of  lighting  and  power  in  fields  that 
the  higher  cost  of  small  steam  power  had  precluded.  Thus  the 
incentive  to  invention  has  been  the  father  to  a  fast-growing  in- 
dustry, that  has  and  will  continue  to  ameliorate  the  labor  of  our 
small  industries  by  the  supply  of  small,  reliable,  and  cheap  power 
for  all  purposes ;  and  present  indications  are  that  the  explosive 


6  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

motor  will  become  a  prominent  source  of  power  for  vehicles,  for 
larger  sizes  of  vessels  than  heretofore  used,  and  for  stationary 
power,  rivalling  steam  power  of  but  a  few  years  since. 

The  advent  of  the  2Oth  century  has  been  a  progressive  one  in 
explosive  engine  building,  with  a  large  increase  in  the  annual 
number  of  patents  issued  (122),  mostly  relating  to  the  minor 
details  of  governing  and  ignition;  although  some  general  prin- 
ciples in  compounding  and  compressing  the  air  or  charge  by  du- 
plex areas  of  piston  and  cylinder,  in  order  to  lessen  the  number 
of  impulse  cycles,  have  been  patented.  These  complexities  do  not 
add  to  the  needed  simplicity  of  the  perfect  explosive  motor,  so 
much  desired  in  the  realm  of  this  new  prime-mover. 

The  use  of  the  explosive  motor  for  marine  and  vehicle  ser- 
vice has  had  large  expansion.  Launches  and  yachts  fitted  with 
explosive  motors  are  now  fast  taking  rank  with  steam  and  other 
motors  on  all  the  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States ;  nor 
does  the  explosive  principle  lag  in  its  application  to  the  motor 
vehicle,  the  tricycle  and  the  bicycle. 

The  amateur  craze  for  motive  power  seems  to  have  spread 
with  the  bicycle  pace,  until  the  fever  has  broken  out  in  a  multi- 
tude of  young  machinists  with  motor  proclivities. 

The  expiration  of  patents  in  England,  Germany,  France  and 
the  United  States  has  now  cast  loose  many  of  the  bonds  that 
have  in  a  measure  retarded  the  freedom  of  manufacture  in  the 
explosive  motor  line,  so  that  the  fundamental  principles  of  con- 
struction are  no  longer  a  hindrance  to  the  amateur  experimenter. 

Over  500  patents  in  England  and  as  many  more  in  Germany 
and  France  and  160  in  the  United  States  have  expired  by  lim- 
itation at  this  date,  September,  1902 ;  so  that  there  should  be  no 
difficulty  now  in  the  construction  of  a  good  and  economical  ex- 
plosive engine  without  infringing  on  patents  in  force, 

September,  1902. 


CHAPTER   II. 
THEORY  OF   THE   GAS  AND   GASOLINE   ENGINE. 

THE  laws  controlling  the  elements  that  create  a  power  by 
their  expansion  by  heat  due  to  combustion,  when  properly  un- 
derstood, become  a  matter  of  computation  in  regard  to  their 
value  as  an  agent  for  generating  power  in  the  various  kinds  of 
explosive  engines. 

The  method  of  heating  the  elements  of  power  in  explosive 
engines  greatly  widens  the .  limits  of  temperature  as  available 
in  other  types  of  heat  engines.  It  disposes  of  many  of  the  prac- 
tical troubles  of  hot-air  and  even  of  steam  engines,  in  the  sim- 
plicity and  directness  of  application  of  the  elements  of  power. 
In  the  explosive  engine  the  difficulty  of  conveying  heat  for 
producing  expansive  effect  by  convection  is  displaced  by  the 
generation  of  the  required  heat  within  the  expansive  element 
and  at  the  instant  of  its  useful  work.  The  low  conductivity  of 
heat  to  and  from  air  has  been  the  great  obstacle  in  the  practi- 
cal development  of  the  hot-air  engine ;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
it  has  become  the  source  of  economy  and  practicability  in  the 
development  of  the  internal-combustion  engine. 

The  action  of  air,  gas,  and  the  vapors  of  gasoline  and  petro- 
leum oil,  whether  singly  or  mixed,  is  affected  by  changes  of 
temperature,  practically  in  nearly  the  same  ratio ;  but  when 
the  elements  that  produce  combustion  are  interchanged  in  con- 
fined spaces,  there  is  a  marked  difference  of  effect.  The  oxy- 
gen of  the  air,  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  of  a  gas,  or  vapor  of 
gasoline  or  petroleum  oil  are  the  elements  that  by  combustion 
produce  heat  to  expand  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  the  watery 
vnpor  produced  by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air  and  the 
hydrogen  in  the  gas,  as  well  as  also  the  monoxide  and  car- 


8  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

bonic-acid  gas  that  may  be  formed  by  the  union  of  the  carbon 
of  gas  or  vapor  with  part  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 

The  various  mixtures  as  between  air  and  gas,  or  air  and 
vapor,  with  the  proportion  of  the  products  of  combustion 
left  in  the  cylinder  from  a  previous  combustion,  form  tht 
elements  to  be  considered  in  estimating  the  amount  of  pres 
sure  that  may  be  obtained  by  their  combustion  and  expansive 
force. 

.The  phenomena  of  the  brilliant  light  and  its  accompanying 
heat  at  the  moment  of  explosion  have  been  witnessed  in  the 
experiments  of  Dugald  Clerk  in  England,  the  illumination 
lasting  throughout  the  stroke ;  but  in  regard  to  time  in  a  four- 
cycle engine,  the  incandescent  state  exists  only  one-quarter  of 
the  running  time.  Thus  the  time  interval,  together  with  the 
non-conductibility  of  the  gases,  makes  the  phenomena  of  a  high- 
temperature  combustion  within  the  comparatively  cool  walls  of 
a  cylinder  a  practical  possibility. 

The  natural  laws,  long  since  promulgated  by  Boyle,  Gay 
Lussac,  and  others,  on  the  subject  of  the  expansion  and  com- 
pression of  gases  by  force  and  by  heat,  and  their  variable 
pressures  and  temperatures  when  confined,  are  conceded  to  be 
practically  true  and  applicable  to  all  gases,  whether  single, 
mixed,  or  combined. 

The  law  formulated  by  -Boyle  only  relates  to  the  compres- 
sion and  expansion  of  gases  without  a  change  of  temperature, 
and  is  stated  in  these  words : 

If  the  temperature  of  a  gas  be  kept  const 'ant ',  its  pressure  or 
elastic  force  will  vary  inversely  as  the  volume  it  nr.r.ut>ies^_  __ 

It  is  expressed  in  the  formula  P  x  V  =  C,  or  pressure  x 

C  C 

volume  =  constant.     Hence, —  =  V  and —  =  P. 

Thus  the  curve  formed  by  increments  of  pressure  during 
the  expansion  or  compression  of  a  given  volume  of  gas  without 
change  of  temperature  is  designated  as  the  isothermal  curve 
in  which  the  volume  multiplied  by  the  pressure  is  a  constant 


THEORY    OF  THE   GAS   AND    GASOLINE   ENGINE.  9 

value  in  expansion,  and  inversely  the  pressure  divided  by  the 
volume  is  a  constant  value  in  compressing  a  gas. 

But  as  compression  and  expansion  of  gases  require  force 
for  its  accomplishment  mechanically,  or  by  the  application  or 
abstraction  of  heat  chemically,  or  by  convection,  a  second  con- 
dition becomes  involved,  which  was  formulated  into  a  law  of" 
thermodynamics  by  Gay  Lussac  under  the  following  condi- 
tions : 

A  given  volume  of  gas  under  a  free  piston  expands  by  heat 
and  contracts  by  the  loss  of  heat,  its  volume  causing  a  propor- 
tional movement  of  a  free  piston  equal  to  ^fg-  part  of  the  cyl- 
inder volume  for  each  degree  Centigrade  difference  in  tem- 
perature, or  j-J-g-  part  of  its  volume  for  each  degree  Fahren 
heit. 

With  a  fixed  piston  (constant  volume),  the  pressure  is  in- 
creased or  decreased  by  an  increase  or  decrease  of  heat  in  the 
same  proportion  of  ^Jr  Part  of  lt$  pressure  for  each  degree 
Centigrade,  or  j-J-g-  part  of  its  pressure  for  each  degree  Fahren- 
heit change  in  temperature. 

This  is  the  natural  sequence  of  the  law  of  mechanical  equiv- 
alent, which  is  a  necessary  deduction  from  the  principle  that 
nothing  in  nature  can  be  lost  or  wasted,  for  all  the  heat  that  i& 
imparted  to  or  abstracted  from  a  gaseous  body  must  be  ac- 
counted for,  either  as  heat  or  its  equivalent  transformed  into- 
some  other  form  of  energy. 

In  the  case  of  a  piston  moving  in  a  cylinder  by  the  expan- 
sive force  of  heat  in  a  gaseous  body,  all  the  heat  expended  in 
expansion  of  the  gas  is  turned  into  work;  the  balance  must 
be  accounted  for  in  absorption  by  the  cylinder  or  radiation. 

This  theory  is  equally  applicable  to  the  cooling  of  gases  by 
abstraction  of  heat  or  by  cooling  due  to  expansion  by  the  mo- 
tion of  a  piston. 

The  denominators  of  these  fractions  represent  the  absolute 
zero  of  cold  below  the  freezing-point  of  water,  and  reads  —  273° 
C.  or  —  492.66°  =  —460.66°  F.  below  zero;  and  these  are 


TO  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

starting-points  of  reference  in  computing  the  heat  expansion 
in  gas  engines^ 

According  to  Boyle's  law,  called  the  first  law  of  gases,  there 
are  but  two  characteristics  of  a  gas  and  their  variations  to  be 
considered,  viz. ,  volume  and  pressure ;  while  by  the  law  of  Gay 
Lussac,  called  the  second  law  of  gases,  a  third  is  added,  con- 
sisting of  the  value  of  the  absolute  temperature,  counting  from 
-absolute  zero  to  the  temperatures  at  which  the  operations  take 
place. 

The  ratio  of  the  variation  of  the  three  conditions — volume, 
pressure,  and  heat  from  the  absolute  zero  temperature — has  a 
certain  rate,  in  which  the  volume  multiplied  by  the  pressure 
and  the  product  divided  by  the  absolute  temperature  equals  the 
ratio  of  expansion  for  each  degree. 

The  expansion  of  a  gas  ^  of  its  volume  for  every  degree 
Centigrade,  added  to  its  temperature,  is  equal  to  the  decimal 
.00366,  the  coefficient  of  expansion  for  Centigrade  units.  To 
any  given  volume  of  a  gas,  its  expansion  may  be  computed  by 
multiplying  the  coefficient  by  the  number  of  degrees,  and  by 
reversing  the  process  the  degree  of  acquired  heat  may  be 
obtained  approximately.  These  methods  are  not  strictly 
in  conformity  with  the  absolute  mathematical  formula,  be- 
cause there  is  a  small  increase  in  the  increment  of  expan- 
sion of  a  dry  gas,  and  there  is  also  a  slight  difference  in 
the  increment  of  expansion  due  to  moisture  in  the  atmos- 
phere and  to  the  vapor  of  water  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  combustion  chamber  of  explosive 
engines. 

The  ratio  of  expansion  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale  is  derived 
from  the  absolute  temperature  below  the  freezing-point  of 
water  (32°)  to  correspond  with  the  Centigrade  scale;  therefore 

r=  .0020297,  the  ratio  of  expansion   from  32°  for  each 

492.66 

-degree  rise  in  temperature  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 

A.S  an  example,  if  the  temperature  of  any  volume  of  air  or 


THEORY    OF    THE    GAS    AND    GASOLINE    ENGINE.          II 

gas  at  constant  volume  is  raised,  say  from   60°  to  2000°  F.,  the 

increase  in  temperature  will  be  1940°.     The  ratio  will  be — 

520.66 

—  .0019206.     Then  by  the  formula : 

Ratio  x  acquired  temp,  x  initial  pressure  =  the  gauge  pres- 
sure; and  .0019206  x  1940°  X  14.7  =  54. 77  Ibs. 

By  another  formula,    a  convenient    ratio   is   obtained    by 

absolute  pressure   of   _i4^     =.028233;  then,  using  the  differ- 
absolute   temp.  520.66 

•ence  of  temperature  as  before,  .028233  X  1940°  =  54.77  Ibs. 
pressure. 

By  another  formula,  leaving  out  a  small  increment  due  to 
specific  heat,  at  high  temperatures : 
-r    Atmospheric  pressure  x  absolute  temp.  -\-  acquired  temp. 

Absolute  temp,  -f-  initial  temp. 

absolute  pressure  due  to  the  acquired  temperature,  from  which 
the  atmospheric  pressure  is  deducted  for  the  gauge  pressure, 

.                                            14.7  x  46o-66°  +  2000° 
Using  the  foregoing  example,  we  have 6o~66"+~6o° 

.  =  69.47  — 14.7=54.77,  the  gauge  pressure,  460.66  being  the 
absolute  temperature  for  zero  Fahrenheit. 

For  obtaining  the  volume  of  expansion  of  a  gas  from  a  given 
increment  of  heat,  we  have  the  approximate  formula: 

Ij    Volume  X  absolute  temp,  -f-  acquired  temp.  ,          , 

Absolute  temp,  -f    initial  temp, 
volume. 

In  applying  this  formula  to  the  foregoing  example,  the 
figures  become: 

I.     y    46°-6f+*00°°=  4.7*604  volumes. 

460.66     -f-    60 

From  this  last  term  the  gauge  pressure  may  be  obtained  as 
follows : 

III.  4.72604  x  14.  7  =  69.47  Ibs.  absolute  —  14.7  Ibs.  atmos- 
pheric pressure  =  54.77  Ibs.  gauge  pressure;  which  is  the  the- 
oretical pressure  due  to  heating  air  in  a  confined  space,  or  at 
•constant  volume  from  60°  to  2oooQ  F. 

By  inversion  of  the  heat  formula  for  absolute  pressure  we 


12  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

have  the  formula  for  the  acquired  heat,  derived  from  combus- 
tion at  constant  volume  from  atmospheric  pressure  to  gauge 
pressure  plus  atmospheric  pressure  as  derived  from  Example 
I.,  by  which  the  expression — 

absolute  pressure  x  absolute  temp.  4-  initial  temp. 

initial  absolute  pressure 

=  absolute  temperature  -f-  temperature  of  combustion,  from 
which  the  acquired  temperature  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the 
absolute  temperature. 

mi.  >  •      i»  1  69.47   X  460.66    -}-   ^O 

Then,  for  Example   i,  -^-^ —  • =  2460.66,  and 

14.7 

2460.66  —  460.66  =  2000°,  the  theoretical  heat  of  combustion. 
The  dropping  of  terminal  decimals  makes  a  small  decimal 
difference  in  the  result  in  the  different  formulas. 

By  Joule's  law  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  when- 
ever heat  is  imparted  to  an  elastic  body,  as  air  or  gas,  energy 
is  generated  and  mechanical  work  produced  by  the  expansion 
of  the  air  or  gas.  When  the  heat  is  imparted  by  combustion 
within  a  cylinder  containing  a  movable  piston,  the  mechanical 
work  becomes  a  measurable  amount  by  the  observed  pressure 
and  movement  of  the  piston. 

The  heat  generated  by  the  explosive  elements  and  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  non-combining  elements  of  nitrogen  and  watei 
vapor  that  may  have  been  injected  into  the  cylinder  as  mois- 
ture in  the  air,  and  the  water  vapor  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  gas,  all  add  to  the 
energy  of  the  work  from  their  expansion  by  the  heat  of  inter- 
nal combustion. 

As  against  this,  the  absorption  of  heat  by  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder,  the  piston,  and  cylinder  head  or  clearance  walls,  be- 
comes a  modifying  condition  in  the  force  imparted  to  the  mov- 
ing piston. 

It  is  found  that  when  any  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  gas- 
or  hydrocarbon  vapor  is  fired,  the  pressure  falls  far  short  of 
the  pressure  computed  from  the  theoretical  effect  of  the  heat 


THEORY   OF  THE   GAS  AND   GASOLINE   ENGINE.  13 

produced,  and  from  gauging  the  expansion  of  the  contents  of  a 
cylinder. 

It  is  now  well  known  that  in  practice  the  high  efficiency 
which  is  promised  by  theoretical  calculation  is  never  realized ; 
but  it  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  heat  of  combustion 
is  the  real  agent,  and  that  the  gases  and  vapors  are  but  the 
medium  for  the  conversion  of  inert  elements  of  power  into  the 
activity  of  energy  by  their  chemical  union. 

The  theory  of  combustion  has  been  the  leading  stimulus  to 
large  expectations  with  inventors  and  constructors  of  explosive 
motors ;  its  entanglement  with  the  modifying  elements  in  prac- 
tice has  delayed  the  best  development  in  construction,  and  as 
yet  no  positive  design  of  best  form  or  action  seems  to  have 
been  accomplished. 

One  of  the  most  serious  entanglements  in  the  practical  de- 
velopment of  pressure  due  to  the  theoretical  computations  of 
the  pressure  value  of  the  full  heat  is  probably  caused  by  im- 
parting the  heat  of  the  fresh  charge  to  the  balance  of  the  pre- 
vious charge  that  has  been  cooled  by  expansion  from  the  max- 
imum pressure  to  near  the  atmospheric  pressure  of  the  exhaust. 
The  retardation  in  the  velocity  of  combustion  of  perfectly 
mixed  elements  is  now  well  known  from  experimental  trials 
with  measured  quantities ;  but  the  principal  difficulty  in  apply- 
ing these  conditions  to  the  practical  work  of  an  explosive  en- 
gine where  a  necessity  for  a  large  clearance  space  cannot  be 
obviated,  is  in  the  inability  to  obtain  a  maximum  effect  from 
the  imperfect  mixture  and  the  mingling  of  the  products  of  the 
last  explosion  with  the  new  mixture,  which  produces  a  clouded 
condition  that  makes  the  ignition  of  the  mass  irregular  or  chat- 
tering, as  observed  in  the  expansion  lines  of  indicator  cards. 

Stratification  of  the  mixture  has  been  claimed  as  taking 
place  in  the  clearance  chamber  of  the  cylinder ;  but  this  is  not 
satisfactory,  in  view  of  the  vortical  effect  of  the  violent  injec- 
tion of  the  air  and  gas  or  vapor  mixture.  It  certainly  cannot 
become  a  perfect  mixture  in  the  time  of  a  stroke  of  a  high- 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


speed  motor  of  the  two-cycle  class.  In  a  four-cycle  engine, 
making  300  revolutions  per  minute,  the  injection  and  compres- 
sion take  place  in  one-fifth  of  a  second — far  too  short  a  time 
for  a  perfect  infusion  of  the  elements  of  combustion. 

In  an  experimental  way,  the  velocity  of  explosion  of  a  per- 
fect mixture  of  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  i  volume  of  oxygen 
has  been  found  to  approximate  65  feet  per  second;  and  for 
equal  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  32  feet  per  second; 
with  i  volume  coal  gas  to  5  volumes  air,  3  J  feet  per  second ;  i 
volume  coal  gas  to  6  volumes  of  air,  i  foot  per  second;  and 
with  an  increasing  proportion  of  air,  10  to  9  inches  per  second. 
These  velocities  were  obtained  in  tubes  fired  at  one  end  only. 
When  the  ignition  was  made  in  a  closed  tube,  so  that  compres- 
sion was  produced  by  the  expansion  from  combustion,  the  ve- 
locity was  largely  increased;  and  with  compressed  mixtures, 
a  great  increase  of  velocity  was  obtained  over  the  above- 
stated  figures. 

The  different  values  of  time,  pressure,  and  computed  heat 
of  combustion  are  shown  in  Table  i,  and  graphically  compared 
in  the  diagram  Fig.  i. 

The  mixtures  were  Glasgow,  Scotland,  coal  gas  and  air. 
The  table  and  the  diagram  (Fig.  i)  make  an  excellent  study 
of  the  conditions  of  time  and  pressure,  as  well  as  also  of  the 
control  of  the  work  of  a  gas  engine,  by  varying  the  proportions 
of  the  mixture. 

TABLE  I. ---EXPLOSION  AT  CONSTANT  VOLUME  IN  A  CLOSED  CHAMBER. 


Dia- 
gram 
curve 
Fig.  i. 

Mixture  injected. 

Time  of 
explosion. 
Second. 

Gauge 
pressure. 
Pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Computed 
temperature, 
Fahr. 

a 

i  volume  gas  to  13  volumes  air. 

0.28 

52 

1,916° 

b 

i         "        "    "  ii 

0.18 

63 

2,309 

c 

i        "        "    "    9 

it           it 

0.13 

69 

2,523 

d 

i        "        "    "     7 

it           ii 

0.07 

89 

3,236 

e 

i                             5 

0.05 

96 

3.484 

The  irregularity  of  the  explosive  curves  in  the  diagram  is 
fair  evidence  of  imperfect  diffusion  of  the  gas  and  air  mixture 


THEORY    OF   THE   GAS   AND    GASOLINE   ENGINE. 


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GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


at  the  moment  of  combustion,  assuming  that  the  indicator  was 
in  perfect  action. 

Experiments  with  mixtures  of  coal  gas  and  air  made  at 
Oldham,  England,  show  a  slight  variation  of  effect,  which  is 
probably  due  to  different  proportions  of  hydrogen  and  carbon 
in  the  Oldham  gas,  with  the  same  elements  in  the  Glasgow  gas, 
In  Table  2  the  injection  temperature  is  given,  which  in  itself 
is  not  important  further  than  as  a  basis  for  computing  the 
theoretical  temperature  of  combustion. 

A  record  of  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  its 
•extremes  would  be  valuable  in  showing  the  variation  in  explo- 
sive effect  due  to  the  vapor  of  water  derived  from  the  air  un- 
der different  hygrometric  conditions. 

TABLE  II. — EXPLOSION  AT  CONSTANT  VOLUME  IN  A  CLOSED  CHAMBER. 


gram 
curve 
Fig.  2. 

Mixture  injected. 

Temp,  of 
injection, 
Fahr. 

Time 
of  explo- 
sion. 
Second. 

Observed 
gauge 
pressure. 
Pounds. 

Com- 
puted 
temp., 
Fahr. 

a 

volume  gas  to  14  volumes  air. 

64° 

0.45 

40. 

1,483° 

b 

i          H 

13 

51 

0.31 

51.5 

1,859 

c 

i          it 

12 

51 

0.24 

60. 

2,195 

d 

i          it 

II 

51 

0.17 

61. 

2,228 

e 

i          it 

9 

62 

0.08 

78. 

2,835 

f 

i          it 

7 

62 

0.06 

87. 

3,151 

g 

it         it 

6 

51 

0.04 

90. 

3,257 

h 

ii         it    ii 

51 

0.055 

01. 

3.293 

i 

ii         ii    ii 

4 

ii 

66 

o.  16 

80. 

2,871 

In  an  examination  of  the  times  of  explosion  and  the  corre- 
sponding pressures  in  both  tables,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  mix- 
ture of  i  part  gas  to  6  parts  air  is  the  most  effective  and  will 
give  the  highest  mean  pressure  in  a  gas  engine. 

In  this  diagram  the  undulations  of  the  rising  curves  due  to 
irregular  firing  of  the  mixture  are  well  marked.  There  is  a 
limit  to  the  relative  proportions  of  illuminating  gas  and  air 
mixture  that  is  explosive,  somewhat  variable,  depending  upon 
the  proportion  of  hydrogen  in  the  gas.  With  ordinary  coal 
gas,  i  of  gas  to  15  parts  air;  and  on  the  lower  end  of  the  scale, 


THEORY   OF   THE    GAS   AND    GASOLINE   ENGINE. 


I  volume  of  gas  to  2  parts  of  air  are  non-explosive.  With  gas- 
oline vapor  the  explosive  effect  ceases  at  i  to  16,  and  a  satu- 
rated mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  vapor  and  air  will  not  ex- 
plode, while  the  most  intense  explosive  effect  is  from  a  mixture 
of  i  part  vapor  to  9  parts  air.  In  the  use  of  gasoline  and  air 
mixtures  from  a  carburetter,  the  best  effect  is  from  i  part  sat- 
urated air  to  8  parts  free  air. 

PROPERTIES  AND  EXPLOSIVE  TEMPERATURE  OF  A  MIXTURE  OF  ONE  PART  OF 
ILLUMINATING  GAS  OF  660  THERMAL  UNITS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  WITH  VARIOUS 
PROPORTIONS  OF  AIR  WITHOUT  MIXTURE  OF  CHARGE  WITH  THE  PRODUCTS 
OF  A  PREVIOUS  EXPLOSION. 


Proportion,  Air  to 
Gas,  by  Volumes. 

Pounds  in  One  Cubic 
Foot  of  Mixture. 

Specific  Heat. 
Heat  Units  Required 
to  Raise  i  Ib.  1° 
Fahrenheit. 

Heat  to 
Raise  One 
Cubic 
Foot  of 
Mixture 
i°  Fahr. 

Heat  Units  Evolved 
by  Combustion. 

Ratio, 

Col. 

1 

Usual  Combustion 
Efficiency. 

SI 

=  S3 

fill 
sill 

<n  O.(t»> 

t> 

3090 
3027 
2832 
2637 
2468 
2307 
2115 

Constant 
Pressure. 

Constant 
Volume. 

6  to     
7  to     
8  to 

,074195 
.075012 
.075647 
.076155 
.076571 
.0769X7 
.077211 

.2668 
.2628 
.2598 
.2575 
.2555 
.2540 
.2526 

•I9!3 
.1882 
.1858 
.1846 
.1825 
.1813 
.1803 

.014189 
.014116 
.014059 
.014013 
.013976 

•013945 
.013922 

94.28 
82. 

73-33 
66. 
60. 
55- 
50.77 

6644.6 
5844.4 
5216  I 
4709.9 
4293. 
3'H4- 
3646.7 

•4^5 
.518 
•543 
•56 
•  575 
.585 
•  58 

Q  to 

10  tO      
II  tO      
12  tO      

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  and  air  mixture  as  given  in 
Col.  2  is  found  by  adding  the  number  of  volumes  of  air  multiplied 
by  its  weight,  .0807,  to  one  volume  of  gas  of  weight  .035  pound 
per  cubic  foot  and  dividing  by  the  total  number  of  volumes ;  for 

example,  as  in  the  table  6  x  .0807  =  —   -  =  .074195   as  in  the 

first  line,  and  so  on  for  any  mixture  or  for  other  gases  of  different 
specific  weight  per  cubic  foot.  The  heat  units  evolved  by  combus- 
tion of  the  mixture  (Col.  6)  are  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  heat 
units  in  a  cubic  foot  of  gas  by  the  total  proportion  of  the  mixture, 

—  =  94.28  as  in  the  first  line  of  the  table.  Col.  5  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  mixture  in  Col. 
2  by  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume  (Col.  4),  '  = 

Col.  7  the  total  heat  ratio,  of  which  Col.  8  gives  the  usual  combus- 
tion efficiency  —  Col.  7  X  by  Col.  8  gives  the  absolute  rise  in  tem- 
perature of  a  pure  mixture. 


.CHAPTER   III. 
UTILIZATION  OF  HEAT  AND  EFFICIENCY  IN  GAS  ENGINES. 

THE  utilization  of  heat  in  any  heat  engine  has  long  been  a 
theme  of  inquiry  and  experiment  with  scientists  and  engineers, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  best  practical  conditions  and 
construction  of  heat  engines  that  would  represent  the  highest 
efficiency  or  the  nearest  approach  to  the  theoretical  value  of 
heat,  as  measured  by  empirical  laws  that  have  been  derived 
from  experimental  researches  relating  to  its  ultimate  value. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  steam  engine  returns  only  from  1 2  to 
1 8  per  cent  of  the  power  due  to  the  heat  generated  by  the  fuel, 
about  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat  being  lost  in  the  chimney, 
the  only  use  of  which  is  to  create  a  draught  for  the  fire ;  the 
balance,  some  60  per  cent.,  is  lost  in  the  exhaust  and  by  radia- 
tion. The  problem  of  utmost  utilization  of  force  in  steam  has 
nearly  reached  its  limit. 

The  internal-combustion  system  of  creating  power  is  com- 
paratively new  in  practice,  and  is  but  just  settling  into  definite 
shape  by  repeated  trials  and  modification  of  details,  so  as  to  give 
somewhat  reliable  data  as  to  what  may  be  expected  from  the 
rival  of  the  steam  engine  as  a  prime -mover. 

For  small  powers,  the  gas,  gasoline,  and  petroleum  oil  en- 
gine is  forging  ahead  at  a  rapid  rate,  filling  the  thousand 
wants  of  manufacture  and  business  for  a  power  that  does  not 
require  expensive  care,  that  is  perfectly  safe  at  all  times,  that 
can  be  used  in  any  place  in  the  wide  world  to  which  its  concen- 
trated fuel  can  be  conveyed,  and  that  has  eliminated  the  con- 
stant handling  of  crude  fuel  and  water. 

The  utilization  of  heat  in  a  gas  engine  is  mainly  due 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  products  entering  into  com- 


• 


UTILIZATION   OF   HEAT   AND    EFFICIENCY.  19 

bustion  are  distributed  in  relation   to   the  movement  of  the 
piston. 

In  the  two-cycle  engine,  the  gas  or  vapor  and  air  mixtures 
are  drawn  in  during  a  part  of  the  stroke,  fired,  expanded  with 
the  motion  of  the  piston,  and  exhausted  by  the  return  stroke. 
The  proportions  of  the  indraught  to  the  stroke  of  the  piston, 
and  the  volume  of  the  clearance  or  combustion  chamber,  as  it 
is  usually  called,  have  been  subject  to  a  vast  amount  of  experi- 


FlG.  3.— LENOIR    TYPE. 

ment  and  practical  trial,  in  an  endeavor  to  bring  the  heat 
value  of  their  power  up  to  its  highest  possible  limit. 

To  this  class  belonged  some  of  the  earlier  gas  engines ;  their 
indicator  cards  have  a  typical  representation  in  Fig.  3. 

The  earlier  engines  of  this  class  used  as  high  as  96  cubic 
feet  of  illuminating  gas  per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  con- 
sumption of  gas  fell  off  by  improvements  to  70  cubic  feet,  and 
finally  has  dropped  to  44  and  to  36  cubic  feet  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour. 

The  efficiency  of  this  class  of  gas  engines  has  seldom 
reached  20  per  cent,  of  the  heat  value  of  the  gas  used,  while  in 
the  compression  or  four-cycle  engines  there  are  possibilities  of 
35  per  cent.  The  total  efficiency  of  the  gas  or  vapor  entering 
into  combustion  in  an  internal-heat  engine  is  variable,  depend- 
ing upon  its  constituent-combining  elements  and  the  degree  of 
temperature  produced.  The  efficiency  due  to  heat  only  varies 
as  the  difference  between  the  initial  temperature  of  the  explo- 
sive mixture  and  the  temperature  of  combustion;  and  as  this 
varies  in  actual  practice  from  1400°  to  2500°  F.,  then  the  re- 
ciprocal of  the  absolute  heat  of  the  initial  charge,  divided  by 


2O  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  assumed  heat  of  combustion,  would  represent  the  total  effi- 

TT  _  TT1 

ciency.    The  formula  —  ^  —  represents  this  condition,  so  that  if 

the  operation  of  the  heat  cycle  was  between  60°  and  1,400°  F., 

60  4-  460 

the  equation  would  be:  -  ,      .  —  =  .279     and      i  —  279  = 

1400  4-  460 

.72  per  cent.  But  this  cannot  represent  a  working  cycle  from 
the  change  in  the  specific  heat  of  the  gaseous  contents  of  a  cyl- 
inder while  undergoing  expansion  by  the  movement  of  a 
piston. 

The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  is  .1685,  and  at 


constant  pressure  is  .2375.     Their  ratio  '   ^  D  =  1.408.      The 

.  1605 

ratios  of  the  other  elements  entering  into  combustion  in  a  gas 
engine  are  slightly  less  than  for  air  ;  but  the  ratio  for  air  is 
near  enough  for  all  practical  operations.  The  formula  for  the 
application  of  the  condition  of  work  with  complete  .  expansion 

is:  i  —  1.408  -7^;  or,  as  for  above  example,  i  —  1.408  —  °      4  °- 

1400-!-  460 

=  .3928,  and  i  —  .3928  =  .6071,  or  60  per  cent. 

As  the  temperature  cannot  be  utilized  for  work  from  the 
excess  of  heat  in  the  products  of  combustion  when  the  expan- 
sion has  reached  the  atmospheric  line,  then  the  practical 
amount  of  expansion  and  the  heat  of  combustion  at  the  point  of 
exhaust  must  be  considered.  In  practice,  the  measured  heat 
of  the  exhaust  at  atmospheric  pressure,  plus  the  additional  heat 
due  to  the  terminal  pressure,  becomes  a  factor  in  the  equation  ; 
and,  assuming  this  to  be  950°  F.  in  a  well-regulated  motor, 
the  equation  for  the  above  example  becomes:  r—  1.408  X 
—  460 


=  ;^-  =  -521  X  1.408  =  .733,  and  i  -.733  =  -26. 
1400  —  400       940 

or  an  efficiency  of  26  per  cent.     The  greater  difference  in  tern 
perature,  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater  the  efficiency. 

In  this  way  efficiencies  are  worked  out  through  intricate 
formulas  for  a  variety  of  theoretical  and  unknown  conditions 
of  combustion  in  the  cylinder  :  ratios  of  clearance  and  cylinder 


UTILIZATION   OF   HEAT   AND    EFFICIENCY. 


21 


volume,  and  the  uncertain  condition  of  the  products  of  com 
bustion  left  from  the  last  impulse  and  the  wall  temperature. 
But  they  are  of  but  little  value,  except  as  a  mathematical  in  • 
quiry  as  to  possibilities.     The  real  commercial  efficiency  of  a 
gas  or  gasoline  engine  depends  upon  the  volume  of  gas  or 
liquid  at  some  assigned  cost,  required  per  actual  brake  horse 
power  per  hour,  in  which  an  indicator  card  should  show  that 
the  mechanical  action  of  the  valve  gear  and  ignition  was  as 
perfect  as  practicable,  and  that  the  ratio  of  clearance,  space. 


FIG.  4.— COMPARATIVE  CARD. 


and  cylinder  volume  gave  a  satisfactory  terminal  pressure  and 
compression — the  difference  between  the  power  figured  from 
the  indicator  card  and  the  brake  power  being  the  friction  loss 
of  the  engine. 

In  practice,  the  heat  value  of  the  gas  per  cubic  foot  may 
vary  from  30  per  cent,  with  illuminating  and  natural  gases  to 
75  or  80  per  cent,  as  between  good  illuminating  gas  and  Dow- 
son  gas ;  then,  in  order  that  a  given  size  engine  should  main- 
tain its  rating,  a  larger  volume  of  a  poorer  gas  should  be  swept 
through  the  cylinder.  This  requires  adjustment  of  the  areas 
in  all  the  valves  to  give  an  explosive  motor  its  highest  effi-- 
ciency  for  the  kind  of  fuel  that  is  to  be  used. 

The  practical  effect  of  the  work  done  by  the  half-cycle  in 
the  earlier  type  of  the  two-cycle  engine  is  graphically  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  in  which  t ,  'd  represents  the  stroke  of  the  piston:  the 


22  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

dotted  line,  the  indicator  card ;  and  the  space  in  the  lines,  a, 
b>  c,  d,  the  ideal  diagram  of  a  perfect  gas  exhausting  at  the 
point  d,  in  its  incomplete  adiabatic  expansion.  In  the  valua- 
tion of  such  a  card,  the  depression  of  the  indraught  below  the 
atmospheric  line  and  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust  line  should 
have  due  consideration  as  negative  quantities  to  be  deducted 
from  the  pressure  values  above  the  atmospheric  line.  This 
class  of  engines  is  fast  becoming  obsolete  as  a  type. 

In  four-cycle  engines  the  efficiencies  are  greatly  advanced 
by  compression,  producing  a  more  complete  infusion  of  the 
mixture  of  gas  or  vapor  and  air,  quicker  firing,  and  far  greater 
pressure  than  is  possible  with  the  two-cycle  type  just  de- 
scribed. 

In  the  practical  operation  of  the  gas  engine  during  the  past 
fifteen  years,  the  gas-consumption  efficiencies  per  indicated 
horse-power  have  gradually  risen  from  1 7  per  cent,  to  a  maxi- 
mum of  28  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  heat,  and  this  has  been 
done  chiefly  through  a  decreased  combustion  chamber  and  in- 
creased compression — the  compression  having  gradually  in- 
creased in  practice  from  30  Ibs.  per  square  inch  to  above  80 ; 
but  there  seems  to  be  a  limit  to  compression,  as  the  efficiency 
ratio  decreases  with  the  increase  in  compression. 

It  has  been  shown  that  an  ideal  efficiency  of  33  per  cent. 
for  38  Ibs.  compression  will  increase  to  40  per  cent,  for  66  Ibs., 
and  43  per  cent,  for  88  Ibs.  compression.  On  the  other  hand, 
greater  compression  means  greater  explosive  pressure  and 
greater  strain  on  the  engine  structure,  which  will  probably  re- 
tain in  future  practice  the  compression  between  the  limits  of 
40  and  60  Ibs. 

In  experiments  made  by  Dugald  Clerk  with  a  combustion 
chamber  equal  to  o.  6  of  the  space  swept  by  the  piston,  with  a 
compression  of  38  Ibs.,  the  consumption  of  gas  was  24  cubic 
feet  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  With  o.  4  compres- 
sion space  and  61  Ibs.  compression,  the  consumption  of  gas  was 
20  cubic  feet  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour;  and  with 


UTILIZATION   OF   HEAT  AND    EFFICIENCY. 


0.34  compression  space  and  87  Ibs.  compression,  the  con- 
sumption of  gas  fell  to  14.8  cubic  feet  per  indicated  horse- 
power per  hour — the  actual  efficiencies  being  respectively 
17,  2i%  and  25  per  cent.  This  was  with  a  Crossley  four- 
cycle engine. 

In  Fig.  5  is  represented  an  ideal  card  of  the  work  of  a  per- 
fect compression  cycle  in  which  the  gases  are  compressed.  Ad- 
ditional pressure  is  instantly  developed  by  combustion  or  heat 
at  constant  volume,  and  then  allowed  to  expand  to  atmospheric 


FIG.   5.— DIAGRAM  OF  A  PERFECT  CYCLE  WITH  COMPRESSION. 

pressure — the  curves  of  compression  and  expansion  being  adi- 
abatic,  as  for  a  dry  gas. 

In  this  diagram  the  lines  follow  Carnot's  cycle,  in  which  the 
whole  heat  energy  is  represented  in  work.  The  piston  stroke 
commencing  at  O,  compression  completed  at  D,  pressure  aug- 
mented from  D  to  F,  expansion  doing  work  from  F  to  B,  and 
exhausting  along  the  atmospheric  line  B  A.  The  gases  in  this 
case  expand  till  their  pressure  falls  to  the  atmospheric  line, 
and  their  whole  energy  is  supposed  to  be  utilized.  In  this  im- 
aginary cycle,  no  heat  is  supposed  to  be  lost  by  absorption  of 
walls  of  a  cylinder  or  by  radiation,  and  no  back  pressure  dur- 
ing exhaust,  or  friction,  are  taken  into  account. 

The  efficiencies  in  regard  to  power  in  a  heat  engine  may  be 
divided  into  four  kinds,  of  which  • 

I.   The  first  is  known  as  the  maximum  theoretical  efficiency 


24  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

of  a  perfect  engine    (represented  by  the  lines   in  the  indicator 

TX-T0 
diagram,  Fig.  5).     It  is  expressed  by  the  formula and 

T' 

shows  the  work  of  a  perfect  cycle  in  an  engine  working  be- 
tween the  received  temperature  +  absolute  temperature  (T\) 
and  the  initial  atmospheric  temperature  -f-  absolute  tempera- 
ture (T0). 

II.  The  second  is  the  actual  heat  efficiency,  or  the  ratio  of 
the  heat  turned  into  work  to  the  total  heat  received  by  the  en- 
gine.   It  expresses  the  indicated  horse-power. 

III.  The  third  is  the  ratio  between  the  second  or  actual  heat 
efficiency  and  the  first  or  maximum  theoretical  efficiency  of  a  per- 
fect cycle.     It  represents  the  greatest  possible  utilization  of  the 
power  of  heat  in  an  internal-combustion  engine. 

IV.  The  fourth  is  the  mechanical  efficiency.     This  is  the  ratio 
between  the  actual  horse-power  delivered  by  the  engine  through 
a  dynamometer  or  measured  by  a  brake    (brake  horse-power), 
and  the  indicated  horse-power.     The  difference  between  the  two 
is  the  power  lost  by  engine  friction. 

In  regard  to  the  general  heat  efficiency  of  the  materials  of 
power  in  explosive  engines,  we  find  that  with  good  illuminating 
gas  the  practical  efficiency  varies  from  20  to  30  per  cent. ;  kero- 
sene motors,  15  to  20;  gasoline  motors,  18  to  22;  acetylene,  25 
to  35 ;  alcohol,  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  their  heat  value.  The  great 
variation  is  no  doubt  due  to  imperfect  mixtures  and  variable  con- 
ditions of  the  old  and  new  charge  in  the  cylinder;  uncertainty 
as  to  leakage  and  the  perfection  of  combustion.  In  the  Diesel 
motors  operating  under  high  pressure,  up  to  nearly  500  pounds,, 
an  efficiency  of  36  per  cent,  is  claimed. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
HEAT  EFFICIENCIES. 

THE  efficiency  of  an  explosive  engine  is  the  ratio  of  heat 
turned  into  work  in  proportion  to  the  total  amount  of  heat  pro- 
duced by  combustion  in  the  engine.  On  general  principles  the 
greater  difference  between  the  heat  of  combustion  and  the  heat 
at  exhaust  is  the  relative  measure  of  the  heat  turned  into  work, 
which  represents  the  degree  of  efficiency  without  loss  during 
expansion.  The  mathematical  formulas  appertaining  to  the 
computation  of  the  element  of  heat  and  its  work  in  an  explosive 
engine  are  in  a  large  measure  dependent  upon  assumed  values, 
as  the  conditions  of  the  heat  of  combustion  are  made  uncertain 
by  the  mixing  of  the  fresh  charge  with  the  products  of  a  pre- 
vious combustion  and  by  absorption,  radiation,  and  leakage. 
The  computation  of  the  temperature  from  the  observed  pres- 
sure may  be  made  as  before  explained,  but  for  compression 
engines  the  needed  starting-points  for  computation  are  very 
uncertain,  and  can  only  be  approximated  from  the  exact  measure 
and  value  of  the  elements  of  combustion  in  a  cylinder  charge. 

Then  theoretically  the  absolute  efficiency  in  a  perfect  heat 

T T 

engine  is  represented  by  — = — -,  in  which  T  is  the  acquired 

temperature  from  absolute  zero;    T,,  the  final  absolute  tem- 
perature after  expansion  without  loss. 

Then,  for  example,  supposing  the  acquired  temperature  of 
combustion  in  a  cylinder  charge  was  raised  2000°  F.  from  60° : 
the  absolute  temperature  would  be  2000  -f  60  -f-  460  =  2520°, 
and  if  expanded  to  the  initial  temperature  of  60°  without  loss 
the  absolute  temperature  of  expansion  will  be  60  -f-  460  =  520, 

then  2^20  ' — 51^  =  .79  per  cent.,  the  theoretical  efficiency  for 


26  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  above  range  of  temperature.  In  adiabatic  compression  or 
expansion,  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heat  of  air  or  other  gases 
becomes  a  logarithmic  exponent  of  both  compression  and  expan- 
sion. The  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  is  .1685  and 
at  constant  pressure,  .2375  for  i  Ib.  in  weight;  water  =  i.  for 


i  Ib.     Then  '          =  the  ratio  y  =  1.408. 
.  1605 

Then  for  the  following  formulas  the  specific  heat  =  Kr  = 
.1685  constant  volume,  and  Kp  =  .2375  constant  pressure. 

The  quantity  of  heat  in  thermal  units  given  by  an  impulse 
of  an  explosive  engine  is,  Kv  (T  —  t)  =  heat  units.  Then  using 
the  figures  as  before,  .1685  X  (2520  —  520)  =  337  heat  units  per 
J>ound  of  the  initial  charge. 

The  heat  in  thermal  units  discharged  will  be  Kp  (T,  —  t), 

(T\y 
—  1  ;  t  ==  absolute  initial  temperature,  say  520°. 

Then  using  again  the  figures  as  before  and  assuming  that 


T  =  2,520°  P.,  then  T,  =  520  =  520  x  (log.  4.846  X 

.7102)  =  1594°  absolute,  and  1594  —  520  =  1074°  F.  Then  the 
heat  in  thermal  units  discharged  will  be  .2375  x  (1594  —  520) 
=  .2375  x  1074  =  255  heat  units. 

With  the  absolute  temperature  at  the  moment  of  exhaust 
known,  the  efficiency  of  the  working  cycle  may  be  known,  al- 
ways excepting  the  losses  by  convection  through  the  walls  of 

the  cylinder. 

T   —  t 
The  formula  for  this  efficiency  is  :  eff  .  =  i  —  y  ^  -  r  J  then 

by  substituting  the  figures  as  before,  i  —  1.408  —  —  —  —  -  —  = 
I2H  —  .537  x  1.408  =  .756,  and  i  —  .756  =  24  per  cent. 

2OOO 

To  obtain  the  adiabatic  terminal  temperature  from  the  rela- 
tive volumes  of  clearance  and  expansion,  we  have  the  formula 

y_y_!  rp  y 

-^  =  -=*,  in  which  -==?  is  the  ratio  of  expansion  in  terms  of 
the  charging  space  in  engines  of  the  Lenoir  type  to  the  whole 


HEAT    EFFICIENCIES.  2  7 

volume  of  the  cylinder  including  the  charging  space,  so  that  if 
the  stroke  of  the  piston  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  charging  or 
combustion  space,  the  expansion  will  be  twice  the  volume  of 

V        i  T        /i\-4°8 

the  charging  space  and  -==?  =  -.    Then  -=i  =  (-1        and  T,  = 

(I  \-4o8  /j\.4o8 

-\     .     Using  the  same  value  as  before,  T,  =  2520  (-) 

i  .408 

and  using  logarithms  for  -,  log.  2  =  0.30103  x       =  log.  o.  12282 

£=  index  1.32,  and  — : —  =  1908°,  the  absolute  temperature  T, 

at  the  terminal  of  the  stroke.  Then  ^908°  -  460°  =  1448°  F., 
temperature  at  end  of  stroke. 

For  obtaining  the  efficiency  from  the  volume  of  expansion 

V          2 
from  a  known  acquired  temperature  we  have  —  t  =  -  X  520° 

=  1040°  absolute  =  t,.     Then 

~  .             i.  -  (T,  —  t,)  +  y(t,  -  t) 
the  efficiency  = v    *        '__  1          -• 

Then  using  the  values  as  above, 

efficiency  =  '•-  (1908  -  1040)  +  1.408  (1040  -  5^°)  =  868  + 

2520   520 

1.408  X  520  =  732  -f-  868  =  —  -  =  .80,  and  i  —  .80  =  .20  per 

cent. 

For  a  four-cycle  compression  engine  with  compression  say 
to  45  Ibs,  the  efficiency  is  dependent  upon  the  temperature  of 
compression,  the  relative  volume  of  combustion  chamber  and 
piston  stroke,  and  the  temperatures.  Fig.  6  *  is  a  type  card  of 
reference  for  the  formulas  for  efficiencies  of  this  class  of  ex- 
plosive motors,  in  which : 

t  =  abs.  temp,  at  b  normal. 
to  =  abs.  temp,  of  compression/". 
T  =  abs.  acquired  temp,  e 
T,  =  abs.  temp,  at  c. 
P  =  abs.  pressure  at  b. 
Pc  =  abs.  pressure  at/. 
Po  =  abs.  pressure  at  c . 


28 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


V0  =  volume  at  b. 
V  =  volume  at  c. 
Vc  =  volume  at  f. 

vo  =  V  or  volume  at  -compression  =  volume  at  exhaust. 
KT  —  .1685  specific  heat  at  constant  volume. 


I  vol. 
FIG.  6*—  THE  FOUR-CYCLE  COMPRESSION  CARD. 

Let  T  =  abs.  acquired  temp.  =  2520°  F.  as  before. 
t  =  abs.  normal  temp.  =  520°  or  60°  F. 


t0  =  abs.  temp,  of  compression  =  t  l^\   y   =  —  —  —  ^-^ 

/5o\o.29 

=  0.29.     Then  520°  f—  j       =  777°  absolute. 

T  t       2520°  X  520 
T   =  abs.   temp,  of    expansion  =  -  or  -*  --  =  —  —  -. 

t 


1686°. 


The  terms  being  assumed  and  known  from  assumed  data,  the 


efficiency  =  i  — 


v  (T  -  tc)  -  Kv  (T,  -  t) 

Kv(T-g 

T,  -t 


Reducing,  efficiency  =  i  —  ,1*  _  *  ;  substituting  figures  as- 

T, 
T 


1686  —  520  T, 

above  found,  i * —  =  ,333  per  cent. ;  also   i  —  ^  = 


2520  —  777 


1686 
2520 


j          t        520 
=  .333  and  i  —  -  =  ^ —  =  .333- 


777 


HEAT    EFFICIENCIES. 


29 


For  obtaining  the  efficiency  from  the  relative  volumes  at 
"both  ends  of  the  piston  stroke,  with  an  expansion  in  the  cylinder 
equal  to  twice  the  clearance  space,  by  which  the  total  volume  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke  will  be  three  times  the  volume  of  the  clear- 
ance space,  —  efficiency  in  this  case  may  be  expressed  by  the 


formula  I  —     —        ;  substituting,  the  values  become  i  —  I  - 

\rj  \3l 

using  logarithms  as  before,  log.  3  =  0.477121  X  .408  =  0.194665, 

i 
the  index  of  which  is  1.565,  and  -  =  .639.    Then  I  —  .639  = 


.36  per  cent. 


USUAL  TEMPERATURES  OF  COMBUSTION. 


Clearance  Per  Cent, 
of  Piston  Volume. 

Ratio  of  Compression 
V  P  +  C  Vol. 
Ve  Clearance. 

Rise  in  temperature  of  various  mixtures  of  air  and  gas 
by  explosion,  from  the  compression  temperature  due 
to  the  ratio  in  col.  2,  when  mixed  with  the  products 
of  combustion  from  a  previous  explosion  left  in  the 
clearance  sphce. 
For  gas  of  660  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot. 

6  to  i. 

7  to  i. 

8  to  i 

9  to  i. 

10  to  i. 

II  tO  I. 

12,  to  i. 

•  50             
444    .          

3- 
3-25 
3-50 
3-75 

4- 

40 

5- 
5  5 
6. 

Deg. 
2.027 
2.107 
2.177 
2.237 
2.290 
2.378 
2.448 
2.506 
2-554 

Deg. 
I  877 
1.960 
2.032 
2.094 
2.149 
2.242 
2.317 
2-379 
2.431 

Deg. 

1.865 
1.938 
2  OOt 
2.056 
2  104 
2.185 
2.249 
2.302 
2,346 

Deg. 

.739 
.807 
.866 
917 
.961 
2.036 

2  096 

2.  145 

2.186 

Deg. 
.629 
693 
748 
•795 
•  837 
.907 

.963 
2.008 
2.046 

Deg. 

524 
•584 
635 
.679 
.718 

.783 
.836 
.878 
914 

Deg. 

.398 
•452 
500 
•540 
•576 
636 
683 
.722 
*  755 

.  4.0       

.363    

333   

.285    

25     

.222  

.20            

The  above  heat  values  are  approximate  resulting  temperatures 
usual  in  gas  engines,  in  consideration  of  the  heat  values  of  each 
element  in  the  gas  and  its  distribution  to  the  air  and  heated  con- 
tents of  the  clearance  space  from  a  previous  explosion  and  the 
estimated  absorption  of  heat  by  the  walls  of  the  clearance  space 
at  the  moment  of  combustion. 


CHAPTER  V. 
RETARDED   COMBUSTION  AND  WALL-COOLING. 

SOME  of  the  serious  difficulties  in  practically  realizing  the 
condition  of  a  perfect  cycle  in  an  internal-combustion  engine 
are  shown  in  the  diagram  Fig.  6,  taken  from  an  English  Otto 


FlG.  6.— VARIABLE  CARD. 

gas  engine,  in  which  the  cooling  effect  of  the  walls  are  shown 
by  the  lagging  of  the  explosion  curve,  by  the  missing  of  seve- 
ral explosions  when  the  cylinder  walls  have  been  unduly  cooled 
by  the  water-jacket.  The  same  delay  is  experienced  in  start- 
ing a  gas  engine.  The  indicator  card  IAD  representing 
the  normal  condition  of  constant  work  in  the  cylinder;  the 
curve  I  B  D  an  interruption  of  explosions  for  several  revo- 
lutions ;  and  I  C  D  a  still  longer  interruption  in  the  explo- 
sions with  the  engine  in  continuous  motion. 

In  an  experimental  investigation  of  the  efficiency  of  a  gas 
engine  under  variable  piston  speeds  made  in  France,  it  was 
found  that  the  useful  effect  increases  with  the  velocity  of  the 
piston — that  is,  with  the  rate  of  expansion  of  the  burning  gases 
with  mixtures  of  uniform  volumes ;  so  that  with  the  variations 


RETARDED    COMBUSTION    AND    WALL-COOLING.  3! 

of  time  of  complete  combustion  at  constant  pressure,  as  illus- 
trated on  page  15,  and  the  variations  due  to  speed,  in  a  way 
compensate  in  their  efficiencies.  The  dilute  mixture,  being 
slow  burning,  will  have  its  time  and  pressure  quickened  by 
increasing  the  speed. 


TABLE  V. — TRIAL  EFFICIENCIES  DUE  TO  INCREASED  PISTON  SPEED. 


Efficiency 


work  of  indicator  diagram 
theoretical  work. 


*w  C 

"S    •«" 
5     c 

"2     "^ 

«—            c/f 

ctf        B^ 

o 

'"  C3 

Q,4->     O 

^  ^J  ^  j3 

-H     o3  n 

I 

Mixtures. 

•ill 

8*J 

sSlf 

!"§?! 

'o 

£  XO2 
0> 

1   ^ 

O             ^      Q 

O         o 

1^1 

H 

I  volume  coal  gas  to  9.4  volumes  air  (.1093 

cubic  feet  mixture) 

C-5 

1.181 

70  8 

4QI7 

1.44 

volume  coal  gas  to  9.4    volumes  air  .... 

•  OJ 

.40 

1.64 

/v^'  w 

85-3 

ny-1-  / 
491? 

1.70 

"9.4                      '    .... 

.25 

3.01 

105-5 

4917 

2.  IO 

"9-4                      '    .... 

.16 

4.55 

125.8 

4917 

2.60 

"       "    "   6.33        "          ••  (.073 

cubic  feet  mixture)  

.  15 

5.57 

127.2 

4793 

2.60 

volume  coal  gas  to  6.33  volume  air  

.09 

9-51 

289.9 

*T  /  V*/ 

4793 

6.00 

"       "    "  6.33       "         "    .... 

.06 

14.1 

364.4 

4793 

7.50 

These  trials  give  unmistakable  evidence  that  the  useful 
effect  increases  with  the  velocity  of  the  piston — that  is,  with 
the  rate  of  expansion  of  the  burning  gases. 

The  time  necessary  for  the  explosion  to  become  complete 
and  to  attain  its  maximum  pressure  depends  not  only  on  the 
composition  of  the  mixture,  but  also  upon  the  rate  of  expan- 
sion. 

This  has  been  verified  in  experiments  with  the  Kane-Pen- 
nington  motor,  at  speeds  from  500  to  1,000  revolutions  per 
minute,  or  piston  speeds  of  from  16  to  32  feet  per  second. 

The  increased  speed  of  combustion  due  to  increased  piston 
speed  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  builders  of  gas  en- 
gines, as  well  as  to  the  users,  as  indicating  the  mechanical  di- 
rection of  improvements  to  lessen  the  wearing  strain  due  to 
high  speed  and  to  lighten  the  vibrating  parts  with  increased 


32  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

-strength,  in  order  that  the  balancing  of  high-speed  engines 
may  be  accomplished  with  the  least  weight. 

From  many  experiments  made  in  Europe,  it  has  been  con- 
clusively proved  that  excessive  cylinder  cooling  by  the  water- 
jacket  is  a  loss  of  efficiency. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  with  a  simplex  engine  in  France. 
it  was  found  that  a  saving  of  7  per  cent,  in  gas  consumption 
per  brake  horse-power  was  made  by  raising  the  temperature  of 


Adual  Tndfcafor 

Xtiatjram  from 

Otto  Engine. 


•Exhaust  linn. 

1  Admission: 

'-TJiislength  is  proportional  to  the  stroke  of  Engine.- 

FIG.  7.— OTTO  FOUR-CYCLE  CARD. 


the  jacket  water  from  141°  to  165°  F.  A  still  greater  saving 
-was  made  in  a  trial  with  an  Otto  engine  by  raising  the  tem- 
perature of  the  jacket  water  from  61°  to  140°  F. — it  being  9.5 
per  cent,  less  gas  per  brake  horse-power. 

In  view  of  the  experiments  in  this  direction,  it  clearly 
-shows  that  in  practical  work,  to  obtain  the  greatest  economy 
per  effective  brake  horse-power,  it  is  neessary: 

i st.  To  transform  the  heat  into  work  with  the  greatest 
rapidity  mechanically  allowable.  This  means  high  piston 
speed. 

2d.   To  have  high  initial  compression. 

3d,  To  reduce  the  duration  of  contact  between  the  hot  gases 
and  the  cylinder  walls  to  the  smallest  amount  possible ;  which 
means  short  stroke  and  quick  speed. 

4th.  To  adjust  the  temperature  of  the  jacket  water  to  ob- 


RETARDED    COMBUSTION    AND    WALL-COOLING. 


33 


tain  the  most  economical  output  of  actual  power.     This  means? 
-water  tanks  or  water  coils,  with  air-cooling  surfaces  suitable 


•NOI.LIN9I    JO    J.NIOd    XV 
Nl  Q  «3d  '881  9f  _LV     '  39UVH3 


and  adjustable  to  the  most  economical  requirement  of  the  en- 
gvne. 

5th.  To  reduce  the  wall  surface  of  the  clearance  space  or 


34  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

combustion,  chamber  to  the  smallest  possible  area,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  required  volume.  This  lessens  the  loss  of  the  heat 
of  combustion  by  exposure  to  a  large  surface,  and  allows  of  a 
higher  mean  wall  temperature  to  facilitate  the  heat  of  com- 
pression. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  volumes  of  similar  cylinders  in- 
crease as  the  cube  of  their  diameters,  while  the  surface  of  their 


FIG.  9.— INDICATOR    CARD,  FULL,   LOAD. 

cold  walls  varies  as  the  square  of  their  diameters;  so  that  foi 
large  c)'linders  the  ratio  of  surface  to  volume  is  less  than  for 
small  ones.  This  points  to  greater  economy  in  the  larger 
engines. 

The  study  of  many  experiments  goes  to  prove  that  combus- 
tion takes  place  gradually  in  the  gas-engine  cylinder,  and  that 
the  rate  of  increase  of  pressure  or  rapidity  of  firing  is  con- 
trolled by  dilution  and  compression  of  the  mixture,  as  well  as 
by  the  rate  of  expansion  or  piston  speed. 

The  rate  of  combustion  also  depends  on  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  exploding  chamber,  and  is  increased  by  mechanical  agi- 
tation of  the  mixture  during  combustion,  and  still  more  by  the 
mode  of  firing.  A  small  intermittent  spark  gives  the  most 
,  uncertain  ignition,  whereas  a  continuous  electric  spark  passed 
through  an  explosive  mixture,  or  a  large  flame  as  the  shooting 


RETARDED    COMBUSTION    AND    WALL-COOLING.  35 

of  a  mass  of  lighted  gas  into  a  weak  mixture,  will  produce  rapid 
ignition. 

The  shrinkage  of  the  charge  of  mixed  gas  and  air  by  the 
union  of  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen  constituents  by  the  produc 
tion  of  the  vapor  of  water  in  a  gas-engine  cylinder,  using  i 
part  illuminating  gas  to  6.05  parts  air,  is  a  notable  amount, 


FIG.  io.— INDICATOR  CARD,  HALF  LOAD. 

and  of  the  total  volume  of  7.05  in  cubic  feet,  the  product  will 
be: 

1.3714  cubic  feet  water  vapor. 
.5714      "        "     carbonic  acid. 
.0050      "        "     nitrogen  derived  from  the  gas. 

4.8000      "       "  "  "  "       "     air. 

products  of  combustion. 
6.7428 

Then  7.05  cubic  feet  of  the  mixture  charge  will  have  shrunk 
by  combustion  to  6.7428  cubic  feet  at  initial  temperature,  or 
4.4  per  cent. 

This  difference  in  the  computed  shrinkage  at  initial  tern, 
perature  is  manifested  in  the  reduced  pressure  of  combustion 
due  to  the  computed  shrinkage,  and  amounts  to  about  2  per 
cent,  in  the  mean  pressure,  as  shown  on  an  indicator  card. 

With  the  less  rich  gas,  as  water  and  Dowson  gas,  the  shrink- 
age  by  conversion  into  water  vapor  is  equal  to  5.5  per  cent. 

In  Fig.  7  is  shown  an  actual  indicator  diagram  from  an 
English  Otto  engine,  in  which  the  sequence  of  operations  are 


36  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

delineated  through  two  of  its  four  cycles.  The  curve  of  explo- 
sion shows  that  firing-  commenced  slightly  before  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  and  that  combustion  lagged  until  a  moment  after 
reversal  of  the  stroke.  .  The  expansion  line  is  somewhat  higher 
than  the  adiabatic  curve,  indicating  a  partial  combustion  tak- 
ing place  during  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  particularly 


FIG.  XI.— TYPICAL  COMPRESSION  CARD.     MEAN  PRESSURE,  76  LBS.  PER  SQUARE  INCH. 

manifested  by  the  rounding-off  of  the  apex  of  the  card. 

In  Fig.  8  is  represented  a  card  from  the  Atkinson  gas  en- 
gine.  The  peculiar  design  of  this  engine  enables  the  largest 
degree  of  expansion  known  in  gas-engine  practice. 

Fig.  9  is  a  card  from  a  compression  engine,  showing  an 
irregularity  in  firing  the  charge,  and  probably  an  irregular 
progress  of  combustion  by  defective  mixture.  This  card-  was 
made  when  running  at  full  load,  and  computed  at  69  Ibs.  mean 
pressure. 

Fig.  10  represents  a  card  from  the  same  engine  at  half -load 
and  lessened  combustion  charge.  It  shows  the  same  charac- 
teristics as  to  irregularity,  and  also  a  lag  in  firing  and  a  fitful 
after-combustion ;  but  from  weak  mixture  and  interrupted  fir- 
ing the  cooling  influence  of  the  cylinder  walls  has  prolonged 
the  combustion  with  ignition  pressure.  Mean  pressure,  about 
68  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Fig.  ii  represents  a  typical  card  of  our  best  compression 


RETARDED   COMBUSTION   AND   WALL-COOLING. 


37 


engines,  with  time  igniter,  at  full  load  and  uninterrupted 
firing. 

The  kerosene  motor  card  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engine  (Fig. 
1 1 A)  taken  from  a  20  H.P.  actual,  motor  with  cylinder  12  inches 
X  12  inches,  at  300  revolutions  per  minute,  shows  a  compression 
of  nearly  one-half  the  explosive  force.  Its  efficiency  is  very  high, 
and  by  test  gave  21^2  horse-power  from  i6l/2  pints  of  oil  per 
hour. 

A  most  unique  card  is  that  of  the  Diesel  motor,  which  involves 
a  distinct  principle  in  the  design  and  operation  of  internal  com- 


FlG.    I  IB. — DIESEL   MOTOR 
CARD. 


FlG.   1 1  A. — KEROSENE   MOTOR   CARD. 


bustion  motors,  in  that  instead  of  taking  a  mixed  charge  for  in- 
stantaneous explosion,  its  charge  primarily  is  of  air  and  its  com- 
pression to  a  pressure  at  which  a  temperature  is  attained  above 
the  igniting  point  of  the  fuel,  then  injecting  the  fuel  under  a  still 
higher  pressure  by  which  spontaneous  combustion  takes  place 
gradually  with  increasing  volume  over  the  compression  for  part 
of  the  stroke  or  until  the  fuel  charge  is  consumed.  The  motor 
thus  operating  between  the  pressures  of  500  and  35  pounds  per 
square  inch,  with  a  clearance  of  about  j  Per  cent.,  has  given  an 
efficiency  of  36  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat  value  of  kerosene  oil. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CAUSES   OF   LOSS   AND   INEFFICIENCY   IN   EXPLOSIVE 
MOTORS. 

THE  difference  realized  in  the  practical  operation  of  an  in- 
ternal-heat engine  from  the  computed  effect  derived  from  the 
values  of  the  explosive  elements  is  probably  the  most  serious 
difficulty  that  engineers  have  encountered  in  their  endeavors  to 
arrive  at  a  rational  conclusion  as  to  where  the  losses  were  lo- 
cated and  the  ways  and  means  of  design  that  would  eliminate 
the  causes  of  loss  and  raise  the  efficiency  step  by  step  to  a  rea- 
sonable percentage  of  the  total  efficiency  of  a  perfect  cycle. 

The  loss  of  heat  to  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  piston,  and 
clearance  space,  as  regards  the  proportion  of  wall  surface  to 
the  volume,  has  gradually  brought  this  point  to  its  smallest  ratio 
in  the  concave  piston  head  and  globular  cylinder  head,  with  the 
smallest  possible  space  in  the  inlet  and  exhaust  passage.  The 
wall  surface  of  a  cylindrical  clearance  space  or  combustion 
chamber  of  one-half  its  unit  diameter  in  length  is  equal  to 
3.1416  square  units,  its  volume  but  0.3927  of  a  cubic  unit; 
while  the  same  wall  surface  in  a  spherical  form  has  a  volume 
of  o.  5  236  of  a  cubic  unit.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  volume 
is  increased  33 £  per  cent,  in  a  spherical  over  a  cylindrical  form 
for  equal  wall  surfaces  at  the  moment  of  explosion,  when  it  is 
desirable  that  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  is  generated  and 
carrying  with  it  the  greatest  possible  pressure  from  which  the 
expansion  takes  place  by  the  movement  of  the  piston. 

The  spherical  form  cannot  continue  during  the  stroke  for 
mechanical  reasons;  therefore  some  proportion  of  piston 
stroke  or  cylinder  volume  must  be  found  to  correspond  with  a 
spherical  form  of  the  combustion  chamber  to  produce  the  least 


CAUSES    OF    LOSS    AND    INEFFICIENCY. 


39 


loss  of  heat  through  the  walls  during  the  combustion  and  ex- 
pansion part  of  the  stroke. 

This  idea  we  illustrate  in  Figs.  12  and  13,  showing  how  the 
relative  volumes  of  cylinder  stroke  and  combustion  chamber 


YlG    12.— SPHERICAL    COMBUSTION  CHAMBER 

may  be  varied  to  suit  the  requirements  due  to  the  quality  of  the 
elements  of  combustion.  In  Fig.  12  the  ratio  may  also  be  de- 
creased by  extending  the  stroke.  The  mean  temperature  of 
the  wall  surface  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  cylinder,  as 
indicated  by  the  temperatures  of  the  circulating  water,  has 
been  found  to  be  an  important  item  in  the  economy  of  the  gas 


FIG.  13.— ENLARGED  COMBUSTION  CHAMBER. 

engine.  Dugald  Clerk,  in  England,  a  high  authority  in  practi- 
cal work  with  the  gas  engine,  found  that  10  per  cent,  of  the 
gas  for  a  stated  amount  of  power  was  saved  by  using  water  at 
a  temperature  in  which  the  ejected  water  from  the  cylinder 
jacket  was  near  the  boiling  point,  and  ventures  the  opinion 
that  a  still  higher  temperature  for  the  circulating  water  may  be 
used  as  a  source  of  economy. 


4O  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

This  could  be  made  practical  by  elevating  the  water  tank 
and  adjusting  the  air-cooling  surface,  so  as  to  maintain  the  in- 
let water  at  just  below  the  boiling-point,  and  by  the  rapid  cir- 
culation induced  by  the  height  of  the  tank  above  the  engine 
and  the '  pressure,  to  return  the  water  from  the  cylinder  jacket 
a  few  degrees  above  the  boiling-point. 

For  a  given  amount  of  heat  taken  from  the  cylinder  by  the- 
largest  volume  of  circulating  water,  the  difference  in  tempera- 
ture between  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  water  jacket  should  be  the 
least  possible,  and  this  condition  of  the  water  circulation  gives- 
a  more  even  temperature  to  all  parts  of  the  cylinder ;  while, 
on  the  contrary,  a  cold  water  supply,  say  at  60°  F. ,  so  slow  as  to 
allow  the  ejected  water'  to  flow  off  at  a  temperature  near  the 
boiling-point,  must  make  a  great  difference  in  temperature 
between  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  cylinder,  with  a  loss  in  econ- 
omy in  gas  and  other  fuels,  as  well  as  in  water,  if  it  is  obtained 
by  measurement. 

In  regard  to  the  actual  consumption  of  water  per  horse- 
.  power  and  the  amount  of  heat  carried  off  by  it,  the  study  of 
English  trials  of  an  Atkinson,  Crossley,  and  Griffin  engine 
showed  62  Ibs.  water  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour,  with 
a  rise  in  temperature  of  50°  F.,  or  3, 100  heat  units  were  carried 
off  in  the  water  out  of  12,027  theoretical  heat  units  that  were 
fed  to  the  motor  through  the  19  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  633  heat 
units  per  cubic  foot  per  hour. 

Theoretically,  2,564  heat  units  per  hour  is  equal  to  i  horse- 
power. Then  o.  257  of  the  total  was  given  to  the  jacket  water,. 
0.213  to  the  indicated  power,  and  the  balance,  53  percent., 
went  to  the  exhaust,  radiation,  and  the  reheating  of  the  pre- 
vious charge  in  the  clearance  and  in  expanding  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air.  Other  and  mysterious  losses,  due  to  the  unknown 
condition  of  the  gases  entering  into  and  passing  through  the 
heat  cycle,  have  been  claimed  and  mathematically  discussed  by 
authors,  which  have  failed  to  satisfy  the  practical  side  of  the 
question,  which  is  the  main  object  of  this  work. 


CAUSES    OF    LOSS    AND    INEFFICIENCY.  41 

In  a  trial  with  the  Crossley  engine,  42  Ibs.  of  water  per 
horse-power  per  hour  were  passed  through  the  cylinder  jacket, 
with  a  rise  in  temperature  of  128°  F. — equal  to  5,376  heat 
units  to  the  water  from  12,833  heat  units  fed  to  the  engine 
through  20.5  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  626  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

In  this  trial,  41  per  cent,  of  the  total  heat  was  carried  awajr 
in  the  water;  2,564  heat  units  being  equal  to  one  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour,  then  5,376  -j-  2,564  =  7,940  were  directly 
accounted  for,  leaving  38  per  cent,  to  the  exhaust  and  other 
losses.  As  these  engines  were  both  of  the  compression  type, 
and  the  Crossley  engine  having  double  the  clearance  space  of 
the  Atkinson  engine,  and  with  so  great  a  difference  in  the  vol- 
umes of  the  previous  explosion  held  over,  a  just  comparison  of 
the  effect  of  different  cylinder  temperatures  cannot  be  made. 
The  efficiencies  were  found,  including  gas  used  for  ignition,  to- 
be  for  the  Atkinson,  22.8  per  cent. ;  for  the  Crossley,  21.2  per 
cent. ;  and  for  the  Griffin,  a  double-acting  engine,  19.2  per  cent, 
of  the  total  gas  power  used.  The  efficiency  of  other  engines- 
of  the  four-cycle  compression  type  in  Europe  varies  from  17  to 
22  per  cent.,  some  of  the  lower  efficiencies  being  claimed  as 
due  to  the  composition  of  the  low-power  Dowson  and  water 
gases. 

An  experimental  test  of  the  performance  of  a  gas  engine 
below  its  maximum  load  has  shown  a  large  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  gas  per  actual  horse-power,  with  a  decrease  of 
load,  as  the  following  figures  from  observed  trials  show:  An 
actual  12  H.P.  engine  at  full  load  used  15  cubic  feet  of  gas  per 
horse-power  per  hour;  at  10  H.P.,  15-^  cubic  feet;  at  8  H.P.,  i6£ 
cubic  feet;  at  6  H.P. ,  18  cubic  feet;  at  4  H.P. ,  21  cubic  feet;  at 
2  H.P.,  30  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  actual  horse-power  per  hour. 
This  indicates  an  economy  in  gauging  the  size  of  a  gas  engine- 
to  the  actual  power  required,  in  consideration  of  the  fact  that 
the  engine  friction  and  gas  consumption  for  ignition  are  con- 
stants for  all  or  any  power  actually  given  out  by  the  engine. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
ECONOMY  OF  THE  GAS  ENGINE  FOR  ELECTRIC-LIGHTING, 

IN  the  lighting  of  large  dwellings  or  other  buildings,  where 
there  is  no  power  used  for  other  purposes,  the  use  of  gas  or 
gasoline  engines  for  operating  an  electric  generator  is  not  only 
cheaper  in  running  expenses  than  the  steam  engine,  but  the 
comparison  holds  good  for  the  lighting  of  towns  and  villager 
at  the  usual  cost  of  gas  to  consumers ;  but  when  the  generation 
of  producer  gas  can  be  made  for  such  use  on  the  premises  of 
the  electric  plant  and  by  the  same  persons  that  operate  the 
electric  plant,  the  saving  in  cost  of  electric-lighting  is  several- 
fold  less  than  by  direct  gas-burning. 

In  many  towns  where  oil  producer  gas  is  used,  the  cost  of 
material  used  in  making  the  gas  is  less  than  thirty-five  cents 
per  thousand  feet  of  gas  produced.  In  such  places  the  labor 
of  producing  the  gas  for  a  town  of  say  fifteen  hundred  inhabi- 
tants is  from  two  to  three  hours  per  day,  and  in  some  towns, 
as  observed  by  the  author,  three  hours  every  other  day — giving 
ample  time  for  the  same  operator  to  run  the  electric  plant  in 
the  evening,  or  both  may  be  run  simultaneously. 

When  the  mere  fact  of  the  cost  of  gas  for  direct  lighting 
and  its  cost  for  producing  the  same  light  by  its  use  in  a  gas  en- 
gine to  run  an  electric  generator  is  considered,  the  difference 
in  favor  of  electric-lighting  in  preference  to  direct  gas-lighting 
is  most  apparent. 

It  has  been  known  for  some  years  that  for  equal  light 
power  but  about  one-half  the  volume  of  gas  consumed  in 
direct  lighting  will  produce  the  same  amount  of  candle-power 
when  used  in  a  gas  engine  for  generating  electricity  for  light- 
ing. 


THE    GAS    ENGINE    FOR    ELECTRIC-LIGHTING.  43 

Again,  when  we  leave  the  realm  of  a  fixed  gas  and  the  cost 
of  its  producing- plant,  the  gasoline  and  oil  engine  again  comes 
to  the  rescue  of  the  fuel  element  for  lighting,  from  an  average 
cost  of  7^  cents  per  hour  for  192  candle-power  in  lights  by 
direct  illumination,  and  2^  cents  for  the  same  amount  of  light 
by  the  use  of  illuminating  gas  consumed  in  a  gas  engine  with 
electric  generator,  to  one  cent  or  less  by  the  gasoline  and  oil 
engine  for  equal  light. 

In  English  trials  with  a  Crossley  engine  of  54  I.H.P.  run- 
ning a  25-^  kilowatt  generator  (34  electrical  H.P.),  lighting 
400  incandescent  lamps  (16  candle-power)  consumed  1,130 
•cubic  feet  illuminating  gas  per  hour,  or  2.82  cubic  feet  of  gas 
per  lamp  per  hour. 

The  gas  used  was  16  candle-power  at  5  cubic  feet  per  hour. 
Then,  if  it  had  been  used  for  direct  lighting,  it  would  have 
produced  nf^  =  226  —  i6-candle-power  gas-lights,  a  little  over 
one-half  the  amount  of  the  electric  light — or  the  efficiency  of 
the  direct  light  would  have  been  but  56.5  per  cent. 

To  show  the  difference  between  running  a  gas  engine  at 
full  or  less  than  full  power,  the  same  engine  and  generator 
when  running  with  300  incandescent  lamps,  1 6  candle-power, 
used  840  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  hour,  and  ?-p  =  168  —  16  candle- 
power  gas-lights,  or  56  per  cent,  efficiency  for  direct  lighting. 

When  the  lamps  were  cut  out  to  one-half  or  200,  the  con- 
sumption of  gas  was  740  cubic  feet  per  hour,  equal  to  ^  = 
148  gas  lights,  with  a  direct  gaslight  efficiency  of  74  per  cent. 
— the  difference  in  efficiency  being  chiefly  due  to  the  constant 
value  of  the  engine  and  generator  friction  in  its  relation  to  the 
variable  power. 

Another  trial  with  a  Tangye  engine  of  a  maximum  39  I.H.P. 
running  an  18.36  kilowatt  generator  (24.61  electrical  H.P.), 
lighting  300  r6-candle-power  incandescent  lamps,  consumed  770 
•cubic  feet  illuminating  gas  per  hour  With  direct  lighting, 
i-p  =  154  gas-lights  (16  candle-power),  or  an  efficiency  of  51 
per  cent,  for  direct  lighting.  With  220  incandescent  lamps  in. 


44  GAS>    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

640  cubic  feet  of  gas  were  consumed  per  hour,  equal  to 
128  gas-lights ' and  a  direct  gaslight  efficiency  of  J-f-J  =  58  per 
cent.     Again  reducing  to  100  lamps,  320  cubic  feet  of  gas  was^ 
used,  equal  to  64  gas-lights  with  an  efficiency  of  64  per  cent, 
for  direct  gaslighting. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  by  inspection  of  these  figures  that 
the  greatest  economy  in  gas-engine  power  will  be  found  in 
gauging  the  size  of  a  gas  engine  by  the  work  it  is  to  do  when 
the  work  is  a  constant  quantity. 

In  a  trial  by  the  writer  of  a  Nash  gas  engine  of  5  B.  H.  p. , 
driving  by  belt  a  Riker  3  kilowatt  bipolar  generator  of  120- 
volts,  25  ampere  capacity,  the  engine  speed  was  300  revolu- 
tions and  the  generator  1,400  revolutions  per  minute;  con- 
sumption of  New  York  gas,  105  cubic  feet  per  hour.  With  50 
i2o-volt  A. B.C.  lamps  in  circuit  giving  a  brilliant  white  light 
of  fully  1 6  candle-power,  the  actual  voltage  by  meter  was  120, 
amperage  by  meter  24,  voltage  and  amperage  perfectly  steady 
with  continuous  running.  By  turning  in  resistance  and  reduc- 
ing the  voltage  to  no  and  the  amperage  to  21,  the  lights  were 
still  brilliant  in  the  50  lamps.  With  the  lamps  cut  out  to  40,  the 
voltmeter  vibrated  2  volts  and  immediately  came  back  to  no 
volts,  with  the  amperemeter  at  1 7.  With  a  further  and  sudden 
cutting  out  the  light  to  20  lamps,  the  voltage  fell  to  105  witb 
but  slight  vibration;  amperage,  n.  With  15  lamps  on,  the 
voltage  crept  up  to  no,  amperage  6-J,  and  with  10  lamps  only 
the  voltage  vibrated  for  a  few  seconds  and  rested  at  no,  am- 
perage 4-J.  The  engine  seemed  to  answer  the  change  of  load 
remarkably  quick,  so  that  there  was  no  perceptible  change  in-, 
speed. 

The  investment  of  local  lighting-plants  by  the  use  of  gas, 
gasoline,  and  oil  engines  in  factories  and  large  buildings  in 
Europe  has  been  found  a  great  source  of  economy  as  against  the 
direct  use  of  municipal  electric  current  or  the  direct  use  of  gas. 

The  gasoline  or  oil  engine  makes  a  most  favorable  return  in 
economy  when  used  for  local  lighting  as  against  the  prevailing. 


THE    GAS    ENGINE    FOR    ELECTRIC-LIGHTING.  45 

price  charged  by  the  operators  of  large  steam-power  installa- 
tions for  town  and  city  lighting. 

In  a  trial  of  eleven  days  by  a  10  H.P.  four-cycle  gas  engine 
of  the  Raymond  vertical  pattern,  belted  direct  to  a  150- light 
direct-current  generator  making  1,600  revolutions  per  minute, 
with  the  current  measured  by  a  recording  wattmeter,  giving  a 
steady  current  to  90  i6-candle-power  lamps  on  a  factory  cir- 
cuit, the  total  cost  of  gas  at  $1.50  per  1,000  cubic  feet  with  lu- 
bricating oils  was  $20. 1 6.  The  kilowatts  produced  by  measure 
was  239.  i  or  a  cost  of  .  0844  cents  per  kilowatt.  The  price  of  the 
current  by  the  same  measure  from  the  electric  company  was 
20  cents  per  kilowatt — a  saving  of  57  per  cent.  In  places 
where  gas  is  $i  per  1,000  feet,  the  cost  would  have  been  only 
5f  cents  per  kilowatt. 

In  the  lighting  of  churches  the  gas  or  gasoline  engine  has 
been  found  to  be  not  only  economical,  but  has  largely  contrib- 
uted to  the  cheerful  surroundings  of  a  lighted  church  at  less 
than  one-half  the  cost  of  gas  for  direct  lighting,  and  with  no 
more  attention  in  starting  the  engine,  cleaning,  etc.,  than  re- 
quired for  lighting  and  regulating  the  ordinary  gas  lights. 


The  year  1902  has  ushered  in  a  most  extended  use  of  ex- 
plosive engines  as  prime-movers  for  generating  the  electric 
current  for  lighting  and  the  transmission  of  power.  For  this 
purpose  the  duplex  vertical  engine  and  direct  connected  multi- 
polar  generators  are  used,  from  which  very  favorable  results 
have  been  obtained.  Trials  with  a  2  2  B.  H.  P.  two- cylinder  verti- 
cal engine  of  the  National  Meter  Co.,  direct  coupled  with  a  15 
kilowatt,  6  pole,  compound  wound  Riker  generator,  using  illumi- 
nating gas  of  701  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot,  with  engine  and 
generator  running  at  300  revolutions  per  minute,  are  quoted. 
The  output  was  13,125  watts,  or  equal  to  345  lamps  of  3.8  watts 
each  —  say  16  candle-power,  with  a  total  B.H.P.  =22.71.  Total 
consumption  of  gas  per  B.H.P.  =  17.62  c.  ft.  Relative  illumi- 


46  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

nating  power  of  electric  light  2.21  as  compared  with  equal  con- 
sumption by  direct  gas  lighting.  Efficiency  of  engine  20.6  per 
cent.;  efficiency  of  generator  83.1  per  cent. 

Statements  of  still  greater  economy  for  lighting  by  gas  and 
gasoline  engines,  in  which  claims  for  from  14  to  16  cubic  feet  of 
gas  and  y%  gallon  of  gasoline  per  B.H.P.  are  made  for  large- 
sized  electric  plants,  and  but  a  trifle  more  for  smaller  sizes. 
Electric  lighting  by  the  power  of  the  explosive  engine  is  con- 
ceded to  be  economical  at  all  ranges  of  its  power,  but  with 
gasoline  and  oil  vapor  the  cost  of  fuel  for  light  drops  to  less  than 
i-io  of  a  cent  per  16  candle-power  light  per  hour. 

Electric  lighting  plants  operated  by  gas,  gasoline  and  oil 
motors  are  making  rapid  advances  in  the  number  of  units  of 
power,  and  the  small  powers  of  the  date  of  the  early  edition  of 
this  work,  have  gradually  advanced  to  unit  installments  of  50, 
100  and  150  horse-power  in  double  and  triple-cylinder  motors,  and 
by  duplicating  the  motor-units,  almost  any  desired  installation  can 
be  made  on  the  most  economical  running  basis. 

The  American  practice  of  construction  seems  to  favor  the 
smaller  cylinder  volume  and  their  duplication  for  the  higher 
powers.  In  this  manner  power  installations  for  from  1,000  to 
10,000  incandescent  lights  may  be  made  a  most  economical  plant 
with  illuminating  gas,  gasoline,  producer  gas  or  petroleum  oil. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
THE   MATERIAL   OF   POWER   IN   EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES. 

THE  composition  of  gases,  gasoline,  petroleum  oil,  and  air 
as  elements  of  combustion  and  force  in  explosive  engines  is 
of  great  importance  in  comparisons  of  heat  and  motor  effi- 
ciencies. By  reported  experiments  with  2o-candle  coal  gas  in 
the  United  States,  by  the  evaporation  of  water  at  212°  F.,  a 
cubic  foot  was  credited  with  1,236  heat  units;  while  reliable 
authorities  range  the  value  of  our  best  illuminating  gases  at 
from  675  to  700  heat  units  per  cubic  foot.  The  specific  heat 
of  illuminating  gas  is  much  higher  than  for  air,  being  for  coal 
gas  at  constant  pressure  0.6844  and  at  constant  volume  0.5196, 
with  a  ratio  of  1.315 ;  while  the  specific  heat  for  air  at  constant 
pressure  is  0.2377,  and  at  constant  volume  is  o.  1688,  and  their 
ratio  1.408. 

The  mixtures  of  gas  and  air  accordingly  vary  in  their  spe- 
cific heat  with  ratios  relative  to  the  volumes  in  the  mixture. 
The  products  of  combustion  also  have  a  higher  specific  heat 
than  air,  ranging  from  0.250  at  constant  pressure  and  0.182  at 
constant  volume,  to  0.260  and  0.190  with  ratios  of  1.37  and 
1.36. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ordinary  coal  gas  burned  in  air  produces 
about  one  ounce  of  water  vapor,  and  0.57  of  a  cubic  foot  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  (CO2).  Its  calorific  value  will  average  about  673 
heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

A  cubic  foot  of  ordinary  coal  gas  requires  1.21  cubic  feet  of 
oxygen,  more  or  less,  due  to  variation  in  the  constituents  of 
different  grades  of  illuminating  gases  in  various  localities,  for 
complete  combustion. 

Allowing  for  an  available  supply  of  20  per  cent,  of  oxygen 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


in  air  for  complete  combustion,  then  1.21  x  5  =  6.05  cubic  feet 
of  air  which  is  required  per  cubic  foot  of  gas  in  a  gas  engine 
for  its  best  work;  but  in  actual  practice  the  presence  in  the 
engine  cylinder  of  the  products  of  a  previous  combustion,  and 
the  fact  that  a  sudden  mixture  of  gas  and  air  may  not  make 
a  homogeneous  combination  for  perfect  combustion,  require  a 
larger  proportion  of  air  to  completely  oxidize  the  gas  charge. 

It  will  be  seen  by  inspection  of  Table  2  that  the  above 
proportion,  without  the  presence  of  contaminating  elements, 
produces  the  quickest  firing  and  approximately  the  highest 
pressure  at  constant  volume,  and  that  any  greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  air  will  reduce  the  pressure  and  the  apparent  effi- 
ciency of  an  explosive  motor.  There  are  other  considerations 
effecting  the  governing  of  explosive  engines,  in  which  the  gas 
element  only  is  controlled  by  the  governor,  requiring  an  ex- 
cess of  air  at  the  normal  speed,  so  that  an  economical  adjust- 
ment of  gas  consumption  may  be  obtained  at  both  above  and 
below  the  normal  speed. 

TABLE  III.— THE   MATERIALS  OF  POWER  IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES- 
GASES,  GASOLINE,  AND  PETROLEUM  OILS. 


Various  gases,  vapors,  and  other  combustibles. 

Heat 
units, 
per 
pound. 

Heat 

units, 
per  cu- 
bic foot. 

Foot- 
pounds, 
per  cu- 
bic foot. 

Hydrogen  

61,560 
14,540 
18,324 
18,401 
18,448 
11,000 

293.5 

950 
800 
620 

185 
*5Q 
104 
1677 
690 
868 
584 
495 
1051 

226,580 

773,400 
617,600 
478,640 
142,820 
115,800 
80,288 

492,680 
670,090 
450,846 
382,140 

Carbon  

Crude  petroleum,  West  Virginia,  spec.  grav.  .873. 
Light  petroleum,  Pennsylvania,  spec.  grav.  .841.. 
Benzine.  C6HB  

Gasoline  

28  candle-power  illuminating  gas  .  . 

19             *                 ••              «* 

15              "                 "              "     

Water  gas,  American  

Producer  gas,  English  66  to.  . 
Water  producer  gas  

Ethylene  olefiant  gas,  C2H4  

21,430 
11,000 

21,492 

Oasoline  vapor  .... 

Acetylene  C2H2  .             

Natural  gas,  Leechburg    Pa  

"           "      Pittsburg    Pa 

Marsh  gas  (Methane)  ,  CH                 

23.594 

MATERIAL  OF   POWER  IN    EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES. 


49 


The  various  other  than  coal  gas  used  in  explosive  engines 
are  NATURAL  GAS,  ACETYLENE,  liberated  by  the  action  of  water 
on  calcium  carbide ;  PRODUCER  GAS,  made  by  the  limited  action 
of  air  alone  upon  incandescent  fuel;  WATER  GAS,  made  by 
the  action  of  steam  alone  upon  incandescent  fuel ;  SEMI-WATER 
GAS,  made  by  the  action  of  both  air  and  steam  upon  incandes- 
cent fuel — also  named  DOWSON  GAS  in  England. 

Natural  Gas. 

The  constituents  of  natural  gas  varies  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  different  localities.  The  following  is  the  analysis  of 
some  of  the  Pennsylvania  wells : 

NATURAL  GAS  CONSTITUENTS.  BY  VOLUME. 


Constituents. 

Clean, 
N.  Y. 

Pitts- 
burg, 
Pa. 

Leech- 
burg, 
Pa. 

Harvey 
well, 
Butler 
county. 

Burns 
well, 
Butler 
county. 

Hydrogen    H  . 

22  OO 

47Q 

1-5     CQ 

6  10 

Marsh  gas    CH4 

06  50 

67  oo 

80  6* 

80  II 

7C     A  A 

Ethane    C2H4 

5  OO 

4  30 

e  72 

18  12 

Heavy  hydrocarbons 

I.  CO 

I  OO 

56 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO          

.'io 

60 

26 

trace 

trace. 

Carbonic  acid,  COa  

.60 

•  35 

66 

.34 

Nitrogen,  N     

3.OO 

Oxygen.  O  

2.OO 

.80 

100.00 

100.00 

IOO.OO 

100.00 

100.00 

Heat  units,  cubic  feet,  Fah.  = 

— 

892 

1051 

959 

1151 

Density,  o.  5  to  o.  55  (air  i). 

The  calorific  value  of  natural  gas  in  much  of  the  Western 
gas  fields  is  below  these  figiires. 

In  experiments  recorded  by  Brannt,  "Petroleum  and  Its 
Products,"  with  the  oil  gas  as  made  for  town  lighting  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  of  specific  gravity  about  0.68  (air 
j),  mixtures  of  oil  gas  with  air  had  the  following  explosive 
properties : 


Oil  gas,  volumes. 
I  .  . 


Air,  volumes. 

4-9 

5. 6  to    5.8 


Explosive  effect 
None. 
Slight. 


5°  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

Oil  gas,  volumes.  Air.  volumes.  Explosive  effect. 

1 6  to    6. 5  Heavy. 

i 7  to    9  Very  heavy. 

i ; 10  to  13  Heavy. 

i 14  to  16  Slight. 

i 17  to  17. 7  Very  slight. 

i    18  to  22  None. 

It  will  be  seen  that  mixtures  varying  from  i  of  gas  to  6  of 
air,  and  all  the  way  to  i  of  gas  to  13  of  air,  are  available  for 
use  in  gas  engines  for  the  varying  conditions  of  speed  and 
power  regulation ;  and  that  i  of  gas  to  from  7  to  9  of  air  pro- 
duces the  best  working  effect.  Its  calorific  value  varies  in 
different  localities  from  550  to  650  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 
Ordinary  oil  illuminating  gas  varies  somewhat  in  its  constitu- 
ents, and  may  average:  Hydrogen,  39.5;  marsh  gas,  37.3;  ni- 
trogen, 8.2;  heavy  hydrocarbons,  6.6;  carbonic  oxide,  4.3; 
oxygen  (free) ,  1.4;  water  vapor  and  impurities,  2.7;  total,  100;. 
and  is  equal  to  6 1 7  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

Producer  Gas. 

The  constituents  of  producer  gas  vary  largely  in  the  dif- 
erent  methods  by  which  it  is  made ;  in  fact,  all  of  the  follow- 
ing gases  are  made  in  producers,  so  called.  The  constituents- 
of  the  low  grade  of  this  name  are : 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 22. 8  per  cent. 

Nitrogen,  N 63.5 

Carbonic  acid,  CO, 3. 6       " 

Hydrogen,  H , 2.2       " 

Marsh  gas  (methane),  CH4 7.4       ** 

Free  oxygen,  0 5       ** 


100.  o 

The  average  heating  power  of  this  variety  of  producer  gas  is 
about  in  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 


MATERIAL   OF   POWER   IN   EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES.  5! 

Another  producer  gas,  called 

Water  Gas9 

has  an  average  composition  of — 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 41  per  cent. 

Hydrogen,  H  48        " 

Carbonic  acid,  COa 6        " 

Nitrogen,  N 5 

100 

and  has  an  average  calorific  value  of  291  heat  units  per  cubic 
foot. 

Semi-Water  Gas, 

or,  as  designated  in  England,  Dowson  gas,  from  the  name  of 
the  inventor  of  a  water  gas-making  plant,  has  the  following 
average  composition: 

Hydrogen,  H 18. 73  per  cent 

Marsh  gas,  (methane) ,  CH4 31  '* 

Olefiant  gas,  C2H4 31  " 

Carbonic  oxide,  CO 25. 07  tt 

Carbonic  acid,  CO2 6. 57  " 

Oxygen,  O 03  " 

Nitrogen.  N 48.98  " 

100.00       " 
It  has  a  calorific  value  of  about  150  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

PETROLEUM  PRODUCTS  USED  IN  EXPLOSIVE  ENGINES. 

The  principal  products  derived  from  crude  petroleum  for 
power  purposes  may  commercially  come  under  the  names  of 
gasoline,  naphtha  (three  grades,  B,  C,  and  A),  kerosene,  gas 
oil,  and  crude  oil. 

The  first  distillate:  Rhigoline,  boiling  at  113°  F.,  specific 
gravity  0.59  to  0.60;  chimogene,  boiling  at  from  122°  to  138° 
P.,  specific  gravity  0.625;  gasoline,  boiling  at  from  140°  to  158° 
P.,  specific  gravity  0.636  to  0.657;  naphtha  "C"  (by  some  also 
called  benzin),  boiling  from  160°  to  216°  P.,  specific  gravity 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL     ENGINES. 


0.66100.70;  naphtha  "  B"  (ligroine).  boiling  at  from  200°  to 
240°  P.,  specific  gravity  0.71  to  0.74  naphtha  "A"  (putzoel), 
boiling  at  from  250°  to  300°  F. 

The  commercial  gasoline  of  the  American  trade  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  above  fractional  distillates,  boiling  at  from  125° 
to  200°  F.,  specific  gravity  0.63  to  0.74. 

Kerosene,  boiling  at  from  300°  to  500°  F. ,  specific  gravity 
o.  76  to  0.80. 

Gas  oil,  boiling  at  above  500°  F. ,  specific  gravity  above  0.80, 

Crude  petroleum,  boiling  uncertain  from  its  mixed  constitu 
ents,  specific  gravity  about  o.  80. 

The  vapor  of  commercial  gasoline  at  60°  F.  is  equal  to  1 30 
volumes  of  the  liquid,  sustains  a  water  pressure  of  from  6  to  8 
inches,  and  will  maintain  a  working  pressure  of  2  inches,  or 
equal  to  any  gas  service  when  the  temperature  is  maintained 
at  60°  F.,  and  with  an  evaporating  surface  equal  to  5^  square 
feet  per  required  horse-power,  using  proportions  of  6  volumes 
of  air  to  i  volume  of  gasoline  vapor. 

Commercial  kerosene  requires  a  temperature  of  95°  F.  to 
maintain  a  vapor  pressure  of  from  £  to  -J-inch  water  pressure, 
requiring  a  much  larger  evaporating  surface  than  for  gasoline. 
It  may  be  vaporized  by  heat  from  the  exhaust,  and  is  so  used 
in  several  types  of  oil  engines. 

TABLE  IV. — PERCENTAGE,  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  AND  FLASHING  POINT  OF  THE 
PRODUCTS  OF  PETROLEUM. 


Products. 

Per  cent, 
of  each. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Flashing: 
point,  Fah. 

Rhigolene  and  chimogene  

Trace. 

Gasoline  

.02 

0.650 

10° 

Benzine  naphtha  

.10 

0.700 

14 

Kerosene,  light  

.  IO 

0.730- 

50 

Kerosene,  medium  

•35 

0.800 

150 

Kerosene,  heavy  

.10 

0.890 

270 

Lubricating  oil  

.10 

0.905 

315 

Cylinder  oil  

.05 

0.915 

360 

Vaseline   

.02 

0.925 

Residuum  and  loss  

.16 

1.  00 

MATERIAL    OF    POWER    IN    EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES.          53 

Crude  petroleum  and  kerosene  are  available  also  by  injection 
in  a  class  of  oil  engines  of  the  Hornsby-Akroyd  type,  in  which 
the  oil  can  be  so  atomized  and  vaporized  as  to  make  its  entire 
volume  available  as  an  explosive  combustible,  in  order  that  the 
accumulation  of  refuse  shall  be  at  a  minimum.  Crude  oil  is  also 
used  in  the  "Best"  oil- vapor  engine. 

ACETYLENE    GAS. 

FOR    EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES. 

Much  interest  has  been  lately  shown  and  some  experiments 
made  in  regard  to  the  availability  of  carbide  of  calcium  for 
generating  acetylene  gas  as  a  fuel  in  the  motive  power  of  the 
horseless  carriage  and  launches.  Liquid  acetylene  has  been 
also  suggested  as  the  acme  of  concentrated  fuel  for  power. 

The  gas  liquefies  at  —  116°  F.  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and 
at  68°  F.  at  597  Ibs. ,  per  square  inch.  Its  liquid  volume  is  about 
62  cubic  inches  per  pound. 

The  specific  gravity  of  gaseous  acetylene  (C3  H2)  is  .91  (air  i), 
and  its  percentage  of  carbon  .923,  and  of  hydrogen  .077.  Its 
great  density  as  compared  with  other  illuminating  gases  and 
the  large  percentage  of  carbon  is  probably  the  source  of  its 
wonderful  light-giving  power. 

It  is  credited  by  hydrocarbon  heat  values  with  18,260 
thermal  units  per  pound  of  the  gas  (14^  cubic  feet)  and  1259 
thermal  units  per  cubic  foot. 

One  volume  of  the  gas  requires  2\  volumes  of  oxygen  for 
perfect  combustion,  which  is  equivalent  to  12^  volumes  of  air, 
provided  that  all  the  oxygen  of  the  air  can  be  utilized  in  the 
operation  of  a  gas  engine ;  probably  the  best  and  most  econom- 
ical effect  can  be  had  from  the  proportion  of  i  of  acetylene  to  14 
or  15  of  air.  This  proportion  has  been  used  in  Italian  motors 
with  the  best  effect. 

One  pound  of  calcium  carbide  will  yield  5!  cubic  feet  of  acety- 
lene gas,  and  requires  a  little  over  a  half  pound  of  water  to  com- 
pletely liberate  the  gas,  so  that  where  weight  is  a  factor,  as 


54  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

with  carriages,  tricycles  and  bicycles,  the  output  of  gas  will  be 
but  3.83  cubic  feet  per  pound  of  generating  material.  The 
large  proportion  of  air  required  for  perfect  combustion  makes  a 
favorable  compensation  for  the  necessity  for  carrying  water  for 
generating  the  gas,  as  compared  with  gasoline,  which  yields  but 
2.8  cubic  feet  of  vapor  per  liquid  pound  with  its  best  explosive 
effect  of  9  volumes  of  air  to  i  volume  of  vapor. 

In  liberating  the  gas  from  carbide  in  a  close  vessel  the  pres- 
sure may  rise  to  a  dangerous  point,  depending  upon  the  clear- 
ance space  in  the  vessel,  say  from  300  to  800  Ibs.  per  square 
inch.  In  this  manner  a  few  accidents  have  occurred. 

One  pound  of  liquid  acetylene,  when  evaporated  at  64°  F., 
will  produce  14^  cubic  feet  of  gas  at  atmospheric  pressure,  or 
a  volume  400  times  larger  than  that  of  the  liquid.  Its  critical 
point  of  liquefaction  is  stated  to  be  98°  F. ;  above  this  tempera- 
ture it  does  not  liquefy,  but  continues  under  the  gaseous  state 
at  great  pressures. 

The  heat  unit  value  of  acetylene  gas  from  its  peculiar  hydro 
carbon  elements,  it  will  be  seen,  is  far  greater  than  that  of  gaso- 
line vapor  per  cubic  foot,  but  experiments  seem  to  have  cast  a 
doubt  upon  the  theoretical  value,   and  assigned  a  much  less 
amount,  or  about  868  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

As  the  comparative  volume  of  explosive  mixtures  of  gas  or 
vapor  and  air  is  largely  in  favor  of  acetylene  over  gasoline,  and 
as  the  weight  of  material  for  a  given  horse-power  per  hour  also 
favors  the  use  of  acetylene,  it  will  no  doubt  become  a  useful  and 
economical  element  of  explosive  power  for  vehicles  and  launches ; 
always  provided  that  the  commercial  production  of  carbide  of 
calcium  becomes  available  as  a  merchandise  factor  in  cities  and 
towns. 

The  explosive  mixture  of  acetylene  and  air  spontaneously 
fires  at  lower  temperatures  than  illuminating  gas  mixtures ;  it 
varies  from  509°  to  515°  F.,  while  illuminating  gas  mixtures 
range  from  750°  to  800°  F.  Claims  of  a  higher  temperature  have 
been  made. 


MATERIAL    OF    POWER    IN    EXPLOSIVE    ENGINES.         55 

In  the  use  of  liquid  acetylene,  the  cost  of  liquefying  the  gas 
may  be  a  bar  to  its  ordinary  use,  but  for  special  purposes  there 
-are  possibilities  that  only  future  experiments  and  trials  may  de- 
velop into  useful  work  from  this  unique  element.  In  trials  of 
.acetylene  for  power  in  gas  engines,  made  in  Paris,  France,  it 
was  found  that  a  much  less  volume  of  acetylene  was  required 
for  equal  work  with  illuminating  gas  and  that  it  was  a  practical 
explosive  fuel.  The  only  change  required  was  found  to  be  a 
more  perfect  regulation  of  the  valve  movement,  or  a  smaller 
valve  to  meet  the  smaller  volume  of  acetylene.  In  these  exper- 
iments the  explosive  mixture  was  approximately  i  o  parts  air  to  i 
part  acetylene ;  and  using  from  4  to  7  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  horse- 
power per  hour. 

From  another  account  of  trials  in  France,  it  appears,  as  the 
result  of  experiments  made  by  M.  Ravel,  that  6.35  cubic  feet  of 
acetylene  gas  generate  i  horse-power  per  hour,  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  reduction  of  two-thirds  as  compared  with  petroleum. 
As  to  the  explosiveness  of  mixtures  of  air  and  acetylene,  it  was 
found  that  1.35  parts  of  this  gas  mixed  with  i  part  of  air  began 
to  be  explosive,  the  explosive  force  of  such  mixture  rising 
rapidly  as  the  dilution  with  air  increases,  attaining  finally  a  max- 
imum when  there  are  1 2  volumes  of  air  with  i  volume  of  acety- 
lene; then  as  the  proportion  of  air  is  increased  beyond  this 
limit,  the  explosive  force  subsides,  until  at  20  to  i  it  becomes 
•entirely  extinct.  The  flashing  point  approximates  900°  F., 
whereas  in  the  case  of  most  other  gases  used  to  generate  power 
the  requisite  ignition  temperature  is  about  1100°  F.  The  tem- 
perature of  combustion  is  very  much  higher  than  that  of  the 
other  gases  with  which  it  can  be  compared.  The  special  charac- 
teristics of  this  gas,  therefore,  are  great  rapidity  of  the  trans- 
mission of  flame,  low  ignition  temperature,  high  combustion 
temperature  and  extraordinary  energy  evolved  in  the  explosion. 


56  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

For  comparison  of  gasoline  and  acetylene,  a  series  of  tests 
were  made  with  mixtures  of  air  and  vaporized  gasoline  in  the 
ratio  4  to  i,  which  -gave  the  greatest  explosive  pressure,  165 
pounds,  at  initial  pressure  of  20  pounds.  At  the  same  initial  pres- 
sure the  9  to  I  mixture  of  air  and  acetylene  produced  a  pressure 

2/3 

-  greater  than  that  by  the  gasoline,  so  that  the  volume  of 

165 

1  165 
acetylene  to  give  the  same  pressure  need  only  be  —  X  —  —  °-3O4 

2  273 
of  the  gasoline. 

Taking  the  theoretical  indicator  diagrams  for  the  explosion  of 
these  two  mixtures,  the  area  of  the  acetylene  diagram  measured 
4.91  square  inches,  and  that  of  gasoline  1.79  square  inches,  giving 
a  ratio  of  power  nearly  3  to  i.  Indicator  diagrams  show  that  .the 
time-rate  of  the  acetylene  explosion  is  five  times  faster  than  that 
of  the  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air.  As  vaporized  gasoline  acts 
more  slowly  than  acetylene,  the  practical  test  makes  acetylene 
(mixture  9  to  i)  3.28  times  more  powerful  than  gasoline  (ratio 
of  4  to  i),  whereas  theoretically  it  should  be  only  three  times  as 
great. 

The  calorific  value  of  the  acetylene  used  was  1,350  thermal 
units  and  that  of  gasoline  700  heat  units  per  cubic  foot.  A  cubic 
foot  of  each  of  the  above  mixtures  at  initial  atmospheric  pressure 
would  give  90  pounds  and  43  pounds  per  square  inch  respectively. 
Allowed  to  expand  adiabatically  to  10  cubic  feet,  the  calculated 
external  work,  — 


i—    —          k  (where  A'  =1.405), 


would  be  for  acetylene  22,403  foot  pounds,  and  for  gasoline  12,132 
foot-pounds.  But  only  0.0625  cubic  feet  of  acetylene  was  used, 
while  0.20  cubic  feet  of  gasoline  vapor  was  needed,  or  3.2  times 
as  much.  With  the  given  ratios  of  mixtures  only  0.0312  cubic 


• 

MATERIAL   OF   POWER   IN   EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES.  57 

feet  of  acetylene  is  required  to  do  the  same  work  that  0.20  cubic 
feet  of  vaporized  gasoline  will  do.  Or  comparing  equal  quantities 
of  the  two  gases,  acetylene  has  about  6.5  times  the  intrinsic  energy 
of  vaporized  gasoline  at  the  given  ratios  of  air  and  gas. 

Assuming  an  engine  of  total  efficiency  from  fuel  to  useful 
work  of  15  per  cent.,  and  a  consumption  of  22  cubic  feet  of  gaso- 
line vapor  per  H.P.  per  hour,  the  cost  of  i  H.p.-hour  would  be 
1.3  cents,  at  58  cents  per  1,000  cubic  feet  of  vaporized  gasoline. 
The  cost  per  H.P.  per  hour  for  acetylene  in  an  engine  of  equal 
efficiency  would  be  2.6  cents,  with  acetylene  $8  per  1,000  cubic 
feet,  or  4  cents  per  pound.  To  do  the  same  work  with  acetylene 
in  place  of  vaporized  gasoline,  therefore,  would  be  about  twice 
as  expensive.  For  this  reason  acetylene  would  only  be  of  practi- 
cal use  to  produce  power  where  safety  and  light  compact  engines 
were  required,  as  in  automobiles  and  launches.  In  the  event  of 
a  50  per  cent,  reduction  in  the  price  of  calcium  carbide,  however, 
it  might  probably  come  into  more  general  use  for  gas  engines. 

ALCOHOL  AS  A  MOTIVE  POWER. 

For  some  time  past  the  French  public  has  been  studying  a 
question  interesting  from  the  standpoint  of  the  engineer,  impor- 
tant from  an  economical  point  of  view;  the  question  of  alcohol 
in  its  domestic  and.  industrial  applications.  Among  the  latter  the 
utilization  of  this  combustible  in  explosive  motors  is  the  most 
interesting,  and  this  is  why  the  experiment  has  been  tried  of  sub- 
stituting for  imported  gasoline  a  national  product  resulting  from 
French  or  colonial  crops.  One  of  the  unquestioned  advantages 
of  alcohol  over  gasoline  is  that  alcohol  is  a  fixed  product,  what- 
ever may  be  its  use.  The  same  alcohol  for  motive  purposes  can 
therefore  be  produced  in  any  part  of  the  globe,  and  its  origin  is 
revealed  only  by  special  aromas,  which  are  of  no  consequence 
when  it  is  used  as  a  motive  force. 

If  the  consumption  of  alcohol  motors  is  compared  with  that 
of  gasoline  it  is  seen  at  once  that  the  former  consumes  consider- 
ably more  than  the  latter;  and  as  the  alcohol  is  the  more  costly 
of  the  two  combustibles,  the  problem  would  seem  a  priori  insolu- 
ble from  an  economic  point  of  view. 


58  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

Since  denatured  alcohol  contains  4,172  heat  units  per  pound, 
while  gasoline  contains  11,000,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
raise  the  calorific  power  of  the  former  and  at  the  same  time  lower 
its  price,  and  so  it  has  been  mixed  with  high  grade  gasoline  of 
70  degs.  gravity,  which  contains  about  11,000  heat  units  per 
pound,  and  which  can  be  produced  under  good  conditions  at  a 
low  net  cost.  Mixtures  containing  from  50  per  cent,  to  75  per 
cent,  of  alcohol  have  been  used ;  but  it  is  the  50  per  cent,  mixture, 
which  has  a  calorific  power  of  7,586  heat  units  per  pound,  which 
seems  to  be  the  most  advantageous  at  the  present  state  of  de- 
velopment. From  the  result  of  numerous  trials  made  in  France 
it  has  been  found  that  the  consumption  of  50  per  cent,  carburetted 
alcohol  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  gasoline  for  a  given  power, 
and  this  notwithstanding  the  difference  in  the  theoretical  calorific 
powers  of  the  two  combustibles,  from  which  it  follows  that  the 
efficiency  of  the  alcohol  motor  is  greater  than  that  of  the  gaso- 
line. 

Some  very  exact  experiments  made  by  Prof.  Musil  at  Berlin 
have  shown  the  efficiency  of  various  kinds  of  motors  to  be  as  fol- 
lows:  Motors  run  on  city  gas  (according  to  the  type),  18  to  31 
per  cent.;  portable  steam  motors,  13;  kerosene  motors,  13;  gaso- 
line motors,  16;  alcohol  motors  (mean  figure),  23.8  per  cent. 

The  high  efficiency  is  evidently  due  to  the  great  elasticity  de- 
rived from  the  expansion  of  the  water  vapor  that  is  contained 
or  produced  by  the  alcohol  at  the  moment  of  its  combustion,  this 
expansion  tending  to  make  the  explosions  in  the  cylinders  less 
violent  than  when  gasoline  is  used,  and  thus  giving  a  longer  life 
to  the  wearing  parts  of  the  motor.  So  much  has  this  been  found 
to  be  the  case  that  in  order  to  increase  the  beneficial  action  of  the 
water  vapor  the  German  Motor  Construction  Company,  of 
Marienfeld,  recommends  a  mixture  containing  20  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  it  has  built  motors  to  run  on  such  a  mixture  that  con- 
sume only  .17  pound  per  horse-power-hour.  The  fact  must  not 
be  overlooked  that  in  order  to  secure  good  efficiency  with  either 
pure  or  carburetted  alcohol  recourse  must  be  had  to  specially  con- 


MATERIAL   OF   POWER   IN   EXPLOSIVE   ENGINES.  59 

•structed  motors  having  the  following  characteristics :  The  stroke 
nearly  double  the  bore,  high  compression  and  a  good  spark. 

Finally,  the  result  of  the  latest  experiments  recently  made  in 
France  on  the  "Economic"  motor,  which  was  specially  constructed 
for  use  with  alcohol,  has  been  a  lowering  of  the  consumption  to 
.124  pound  per  horse-power  hour  for  medium-sized  motors,  em- 
ploying a  50  per  cent,  mixture  of  carburetted  alcohol.  For  sta- 
tionary motors  the  problem  is  therefore  solved. 

When  it  has  to  do  with  automobiles  the  substitution  of  alcohol 
carburetted  with  gasoline  is  a  matter  of  great  interest,  for  it  is 
evident  from  statistics  that  if  a  liquid  containing  50  per  cent, 
denatured  alcohol  could  be  used,  a  large  industry  would  be  in- 
duced. 

There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  if  the  purchasers  of  automo- 
biles required  of  the  manufacturers  carriages  that  would  work 
equally  well  on  50  per  cent,  carburetted  alcohol  or  gasoline  the 
manufacturers  would  devise  practical  and  simple  apparatus,  so 
that  one  combustible  could  be  immediately  substituted  for  the 
other ;  and  that  supply  stations  having  carburetted  alcohol  would 
soon  be  established. 

A  little  perseverance  and  attention  is  all  that  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  make  the  alcohol  motor  prosper,  as  has  already  been 
done  in  Germany  and  France. 

It  is  the  consensus  of  opinion  and  so  far  verified  by  practical 
work,  that  the  regulation  of  the  power  of  the  explosive  motor  has 
its  most  economical  working  condition,  first,  in  the  variation  of 
the  quantity  of  fuel  injected  within  certain  limits  for  its  highest 
explosive  force  with  certain  mixtures  of  air;  and  second,  be- 
yond this  limit  by  the  regulation  of  the  quantity  of  the  fuel  and 
air  mixture  in  their  best  proportions  for  highest  effect. 

It  has  been  shown  in  other  parts  of  this  work  that  mixtures 
of  good  illuminating  gas,  one  part  to  between  five  and  six  parts 
air,  give  the  highest  constant  volume  pressure  and  the  highest 
temperature  by  explosive  combustion.  Also  that  the  time  of 
combustion  is  quickest  under  the  above  proportion. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
CARBURETTERS. 


THE  use  of  the  vapor  of  gasoline,  naphtha,  and  petroleum 
oil  for  operating  internal-combustion  engines  is  increasing  to  a 


PIG.  14.— THE  CIRCULAR  CARBURETTER,  PLAN. 

vast  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  and  will  be  no 
doubt  the  cheapest  medium  for  generating  power  so  long  as 
petroleum  and  its  products  are  at  the  present  low  price.  I» 


OL 


V 


PlO.  15.— THE  CIRCULAR  CARBURETTER,  SECTION. 

gas-engine  running,  air  saturated  with  the  vapor  of  gasoline 
and  naphtha  is  in  general  use,  and  when  so  used  is  produced 
by  passing  air  through  the  liquid  or  over  a  surface  largely  ex- 


CARBURETTERS. 


6l 


tended  by  capillary  attraction  of  the  fluid  by  fibrous  surfaces 
dipping  into  the  fluid,  by  vaporizing  the  fluid  by  means  of  the 
heat  of  the  exhaust,  and  by  injecting  the  fluid  in  small  portions 
into  the  air-inlet  chamber  or  under  its  valve,  and  directly  into 
the  clearance  space  of  the  cylinder. 

In  Figs.    14  and  15  is  illustrated  a  form  of  carburetter, 


PIG.  16.— PLAN  OF  VENTILATING  CARBURETTER. 

made  by  the  writer  many  years  since,  for  carburetting  air  and 
low-grade  illuminating  gas. 

This  carburetter  may  be  made  of  heavy  tinplate.  The  spiral 
partition,  made  of  tinplate,  is  perforated  with  sufficient  small 
holes  at  top  and  bottom  to  fasten  strips  of  cotton  or  woollen 
flannel  on  both  sides  of  the  spiral  plate  by  stitching  with  coarse 


FIG.  17.— SECTIONS  OF  VENTILATING  CARBURETTER. 

thread  and  needle.  The  spiral  plate  should  extend  so  as  to 
nearly  touch  the  bottom  of  the  tank ;  the  bottom  is  to  be  soldered 
on  last.  The  valve  V,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  escape 
of  the  vapor  when  the  carburetter  is  not  in  use,  may  be  made  as 
light  as  possible,  of  tin  plate  or  brass,  and  faced  with  soft  leather 
wet  with  glycerin  or  a  composition  of  glycerin  and  glue  jelly, 


62 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


which  always  keeps  soft  and  is  not  injured  by  the  gasoline  or 
its  vapor.  By  this  arrangement  many  square  feet  of  surface 
may  be  obtained  in  a  small  space  and  perfect  uniformity  of 
saturation  insured.  As  the  enclosed  walls  of  this  form  become 
very  cold  by  long-continued  use,  an  improvement  was  made  by 


FIG.  18.— UNION  AND  GLOBE  ENGINE  VAPORIZER. 

making  each  division  wall  with  an  outside  surface,  so  that  there 
was  a  natural  down-draught  of  air  on  the  outside  of  the  entire 
evaporating  surface  of  the  carburetter.  In  Figs.  16  and  17  are 
shown  the  plan  and  sections. 

In  this  form  the  air  spaces  prevent  excessive  cold  by  a 
circulation  of  air  downward  against  the  cooling  surface  of  the 
walls — the  whole  interior  vertical  walls  being  lined  with  cloth 
fastened  to  a  wire  frame  made  to  fit  each  section  and  pushed 
into  place  before  the  ends  of  the  sections  are  soldered  on. 

Very  good  carburetters  have  been  made  by  a  long  cast-iron 


CARBURETTERS. 


FIG.  19.— THE  DAIMLER  CARBURETTER. 


box  with  a  cover  bolted  on  wi'-h  a  packing  of  glue  and  glycerin 
jelly  on  felt  or  asbestos  packing,  in  which  a  frame  of  wire- 


•64  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

work  and  cloth  or  yarn  is  made  to  give  the  desired  evaporat- 
ing surface. 

For  any  carburetter  of  the  forms  here  described,  the  depth 
•should  be  limited  to  8  inches,  as  the  capillarity  of  the  fibrous 
material  is  of  little  or  no  value  at  a  greater  height  than  6  inches 
above  the  fluid,  which  should  not  be  charged  above  3  inches 
in  depth  for  best  effect. 

In  Fig.  1 8  is  represented  a  vaporizer  used  by  the  Globe 
•Gas  Engine  Company  of  Philadelphia.  It  consists  of  a  metal 
body  E,  inside  of  which  is  a  ball-shaped  valve  N,  seated  on  the 
•end  of  a  tube  with  its  spindle  extending  below  the  air  pipe  and 
attached  to  a  disc  at  J  for  regulating  the  lift  of  the  air  and 
gasoline  valve ;  O  io  spindle  of  gasoline  valve.  The  gasoline 
tank  is  so  placed  as  to  flow  the  liquid  to  .the  vaporizer.  The 
air  is  heated  by  passing  through  a  jacket  on  the  exhaiist  pipe. 

Fig.  19  represents  a  sectional  view  of  the  Daimler  carbu- 
retter. The  incoming  air  is  heated  by  passing  through  a 
jacket  on  the  exhaust  pipe,  and  charged  to  saturation  with 
vapor  in  the  carburetter,  the  saturated  air  charge  being  regu- 
lated by  a  three-way  cock,  which  allows  a  further  dilution 
with  air  for  the  explosive  mixture. 

The  gasoline  supply  is  made  through  the  small  central  tube 
to  the  bottom  of  the  carburetter,  which  insures  a  uniform 
density  in  the  fuel.  The  float  B  by  its  weight  keeps  a  con- 
stant level  in  the  conical  cup  D,  where  evaporation  takes  place. 
The  float  and  its  guide-pipe  move  down  as  the  gasoline  is 
used.  The  hot  air  passes  down  through  the  guide-tube  and 
-out  through  the  perforation  beneath  the  fluid  in  the  conical 
cup  D,  then  over  two  diaphragms,  and  through  the  perforated 
screen  and  to  the  vapor  tube.  The  perforated  screen  in  both 
inlet  and  outlet  chamber  prevents  the  jerky  motion  of  the  air 
caused  by  the  suction  of  the  piston.  The  lettering  in  the  cut 
fairly  explains  the  ignition  arrangement. 

In  Fig.  20  is  represented  the  carburetter  of  the  Gilbert 
-&  Barker  Manufacturing  Company,  Springfield,  Mass.  It  is 


CARBURETTERS.  £c 

made  of  wrought  iron,  has  four  divisions,  in  which  perforated 
capillary  partitions  are  set  around  each  division  or  story  of 
the  carburetter,  thus  greatly  enlarging  the  evaporating  surface. 
The  air  enters  the  lower  compartment,  becomes  saturated,  and 
leaves  the  carburetter  from  the  top.  Provision  is  made  for 


FIG.  20.—  GILBERT  &  BARKER   CARBURETTER. 

pumping  out  any  residue  that  may  require  removal  when  the 
•carburetter  is  placed  underground. 

Many  other  forms  of  carburetter  have  been  tried,  without, 
however,  securing  better  results  than  with  those  here  described. 

vSaturated  air  with  gasoline  vapor  has  a  heat  value  of  about 
.200  heat  units  per  cubic  foot. 

A  claim  has  been  made  in  France  that  by  saturating  part  of 
the  exhaust  and  by  heating  the  gasoline,  also  by  the  exhaust, 
a  concentrated  vapor  was  produced,  which,  used  with  the 
air,  produced  a  power  value  of  Tf T  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  per 
horse-power  per  hour.  We  await  its  confirmation.  There  is 


66  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

no  doubt  that  greater  economics  are  in  progress  in  the  opera- 
tion of  gasoline  and  oil  engines,  but  the  use  of  part  of  the 
products  of  combustion  from  the  exhaust  tends  to  lessen  its 
value,  if  it  has  a  value  above  its  use  as  a  part  of  the  contents 
of  the  clearance  space  now  in  use  in  engines  of  the  compres- 
sion class. 

The  evaporation  of  gasoline  of  74  specific  gravity  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60°  F.  varies  somewhat  from  the  form  of  its  ele- 
mentary constituents ;  so  that  an  average  of  1,173  grains  per 
square  foot  of  saturated  surface  per  hour  in  the  open  air  may 
be  assumed  as  the  basis  for  carburetting  surface. 

When  evaporated  in  a  closed  vessel,  as  a  carburetter,  the 
vapor  may  start  at  about  1,000  grains  per  square  foot  of  sur- 
face per  hour ;  but  if  the  area  of  evaporating  surface  is  so  ex- 
tended that  little  or  no  tension  or  pressure  is  produced  by  its 
evaporation,  due  to  the  draught  upon  it  by  the  motor,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  gasoline  is  kept  near  to  60°  F.,  the  evapo- 
ration may  be  relied  on  at  about  800  grains  per  square  foot  per 
hour. 

This  gives  a  basis  for  computing  the  area  of  carburetted 
surface  at  any  assumed  consumption  of  gasoline  per  horse- 
power per  hour.  For  example,  gasoline  weighing  6  Ibs.  per 
gallon,  with  an  assumed  requirement  of  ^  of  a  gallon  per 
horse-power  per  hour,  and  an  evaporation  of  800  grain-*  per 

hour  per  square  foot,  will  require  rg        —  =  5i  square  feet 

ooo 

of  evaporating  surface  in  the  carburetter  per  horse-power. 

With  our  present  experience  there  is  no  doubt  in  regard  to 
the  advantage,  economy  and  safety  in  the  use  of  carburetters  for 
gasoline,  in  which  the  air  becomes  thoroughly  saturated  with 
the  gasoline  vapor  before  it  meets  the  free  air  at  the  charging" 
valve.  Air  saturated  with  gasoline  vapor  is  not  explosive,  and 
is  considered  in  practice  to  be  as  safe  in  pipes  and  gas  holders 
as  any  other  gas  used  for  illuminating  purposes.  It  does  not 
become  explosive  until  further  diluted  to  5  parts  of  air  to  i 


CARBURETTERS.  6/ 

part  pure  vapor.  The  mixture  of  air  saturated  with  vapor  of 
gasoline  is  largely  in  use  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  for  illu- 
minating purposes,  conditioned  as  to  safety  and  favorable  insur- 
ance ;  therefore  there  is  no  bar  to  its  use  under  the  same  conditions 
as  an  explosive  element  for  power.  Its  safety  will  always  be 
insured  by  an  excess  of  evaporating  surface  in  the  carburetter. 

So  far  as  experience  goes  the  sufficiency  of  the  -carburetter 
surface  is  a  most  important  detail  in  its  application  for  the  fuel 
supply  of  a  gasoline  engine,  and  its  deficiency  has  been  at  the 
bottom  of  much  trouble  with  the  builders  of  these  engines. 

A  point  of  great  value  in  the  economy  of  fuel  has  been 
brought  out  by  German  engineers,  in  trials  as  to  the  time  of 
combustion  in  a  cylinder  and  its  relation  to  the  perfection  of  the 
mixture  of  air  and  vapor.  It  was  demonstrated  experimentally 
that  in  the  ordinary  method  of  mixing  a  pure  gas  or  vapor  with 
air  at  the  instant  of  injection  into  the  cylinder  does  not  produce 
an  instantaneous  explosion,  but  from  the  first  impulse  the  com- 
bustion continued  throughout  the  stroke  with  a  portion  of 
unburned  gas  in  the  exhaust.  This  resulted,  as  observed,  in  a 
reduced  initial  pressure  and  consequent  reduced  efficiency  by 
the  indicator  card.  The  continued  combustion  also  increased 
the  heat  of  the  cylinder  as  shown  by  the  increase  of  tempera- 
ture of  a  stated  quantity  of  water  for  cooling  a  slow  combustion 
cylinder. 

It  was  found  experimentally  that  an  injection  of  equal 
parts  of  gas  and  air  into  a  cylinder  required  6  seconds  to 
become  fully  diffused,  and  that  i  part  of  gas  to  6  parts  of 
air  required  from  i  o  to  1 2  seconds  for  perfect  diffusion.  When, 
therefore,  the  time  of  a  single  revolution  of  a  gas  or  gaso- 
line engine  is  considered,  as  compared  with  the  time  for 
charging  and  compression  in  a  four-cycle  cylinder,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  mixture  cannot  become  sufficiently  intimate  to 
permit  the  desired  instantaneous  explosion  necessary  for  the 
highest  fuel  efficiency. 

The  tendency  of  efficiency  in  gas  and  gasoline  engine  con- 


68 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


struction  in  the  United  States  appears  to  be  increasing  in  the 
line  of  more  perfect  mixture  of  the  explosive  fuel  before  injec- 
tion into  the  cylinder;  and  to  this  we  probably  owe  the  possi- 
bilities now  claimed  of  from  12  to  14  cubic  feet  of  good 
illuminating  gas,  and  ^  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour,  and  which  in  some  cases  has  raised  the 
pressure  of  explosion  to  3^-  times  the  pressure  of  compression 
in  four-cycle  engines. 

In  Fig.  20  A  is  illustrated  a  novel  atomizer  and  vaporizer  for 
a  marine  engine.  The  rising  vapor  pipe  is  shortened  in  the  cut 
for  the  convenience  of  illustration. 


FlG.  20A. — GASOLINE  ATOMIZER  AND  VAPORIZER. 

The  gasoline  tank  is  placed  in  the  bow  of  the  boat  and  the 
atomizer  at  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  gasoline  flows  to  the 
chamber  F  by  gravity  and  is  stopped  by  the  deep-seated  conical 
valve  E.  The  cage  of  the  air  inlet  valve  D  is  screwed  into  til*, 
metal  box  at  B  and  is  adjustable  so  as  to  bring  the  push-centd 


CARBURETTERS.  69 

of  the  valve  D  to  the  proper  distance  for  operating  the  gasoline 
inlet  valve  E.  The  lift  of  the  air  valve  D  is  also  adjustable  in 
its  lift  by  the  lock-nuts  at  I  on  the  spindle  C,  which  is  guided  by 
a  cross-bar  near  the  top  of  the  cage.  The  main  air  inlet  is  at  H 
with  a  diffusion  inlet  at  G  regulated  by  a  plug-cock.  The  gaso- 
line is  thoroughly  atomized  by  the  action  of  the  two  valves  E 
and  D,  and  meeting  the  fresh  air  through  G  is  vaporized  in  its 
passage  through  the  pipe  and  inlet- valve  chamber. 

VAPOR    GAS    FOR    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS. 

Much  of  the  risk  and  inconvenience  of  handling  gasoline  for 
motive  power  may  be  avoided  by  using  the  mixture  of  air  and 
gasoline  vapor  as  a  gas,  and  under  the  same  conditions  at  the 
motor  as  with  illuminating  gas.  Many  power  plants  now  utilize 
the  vapor  of  gasoline  generated  at  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  motor  cylinder.  This  requires  the  presence  of  gasoline  in 
quantity  within  the  building,  which  largely  increases  the  insur- 
ance risk,  and  is  always  a  source  of  discussion  and  doubt  with 
underwriters. 

The  vapor  gas  as  now  extensively  used  for  lighting  dwellings 
and  factories  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection  in  its  genera- 
tion and  application  to  lighting  purposes,  as  well  also  to  many 
other  applications  for  heat  generated  by  Bunsen  and  other  forms 
of  gas  burners,  that  it  may  now  be  considered  the  most  conven- 
ient form  for  a  gas-generating  system  for  isolated  places,  where 
an  element  is  required  for  both  lighting  and  power.  The  uncer- 
tainty of  perfect  diffusion  of  vapor  and  air  in  the  present  methods 
of  producing  the  mixture  of  vapor  and  air  near  or  within  the  cyl- 
inder cannot  be  considered  the  highest  economy  in  the  element 
of  power  production,  in  view  of  the  assumed  fact  that  commercial 
gasoline  of  an  average  of  .  75  gravity,  weighing  about  6J  Ibs.  per 
gallon,  is  claimed  by  the  builders  of  the  most  economical  mo- 
tors to  require  but  ^  gallon  per  actual  horse-power  per  hour. 
This  is  equal  to  .  78  of  a  pound,  and  the  pound  is  credited  with 
11,000  heat  units,  or  8580  heat  units  per  horse-power  per  hour. 


7°  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

This  at  774  foot  pounds  per  heat  unit  is  equal  to  8,640,920  foot 
pounds  per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  actual  or  brake  horse- 
power per  hour  is  1,980,000  foot  pounds  or  .  229  per  cent,  of  the 
theoretical  value  of  gasoline.  With  more  perfect  mixtures  of 
vapor  of  gasoline  and  air  the  percentage  in  efficiency  should 


B 


OBSERVATION 
POBT 


FlG.  20B.— THE  DIFFERENTIAL  GRAVITY  REGULATOR. 

be  increased  and  a  uniformity  in  the  action  of  the  motor  obtained 
by  a  more  perfect  diffusion  of  the  elements  of  combustion. 

One  of  the  means  for  automatically  regulating  the  mixture 
of  vapor  and  air  is  illustrated  in  the  combined  mixer  and  regu- 
lator of  the  Gilbert  &  Barker  Mfg.  Co. ,  82  John  Street,  New  York, 
Fig.  20  B,  and  in  Fig.  20  c,  the  mixer  and  meter  air  pump  placed 


CARBURETTERS.  71 

within  a  building.  The  carburetter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  p.  65, 
is  placed  in  the  ground  or  a  vault  outside  of  the  building.  The  air 
is  forced  by  the  air  meter  pump  at  a  low  pressure  (i  to  i-J  inches 
water  pressure)  to  the  carburetter  on  the  outside  of  the  building 
and  returned  through  another  pipe,  loaded  with  the  vapor  of 
gasoline,  to  the  regulator,  where,  by  a  differential  gravity  balance, 
a  supplementary  valve  is  opened  by  which  a  direct  current  of  air 
•enters  from  the  pressure  pipe  of  the  air  meter  pump  and  dilutes 
the  direct  vapor  charge  from  the  carburetter  to  a  uniform  mix- 
ture, and  thus  producing  a  constant  flow  of  gas  of  a  gravity  for 
the  best  effect  in  lighting,  and  also,  when  further  diluted  at  the 
inlet  valve,  for  the  best  explosive  effect  in  a  motor. 

The  pure  vapor  of  gasoline  is  of  a  gravity  of  2.8  (air  i)  and 
the  air  gas  vapor  as  it  comes  from  the  carburetter  may  be  of 
varying  gravities  from  2.5  to  1.5  (air  i),  and  it  is  the  difference 
in  the  gravity  of  air  and  the  heavier  vapor  of  gasoline  and  air  as 
it  comes  from  the  carburetter  that  operates  the  diluting  mech- 
anism of  the  apparatus  to  produce  a  mixture  of  uniform  qtrattty. 
For  this  purpose,  the  float  B  is  a  sealed  metal  can,  containing 
air  which  with  its  weight  and  the  air  inlet  valve  C  is  exactly 
balanced  by  an  adjustable  counterpoise  F  and  enclosed  within  a 
cast-iron  case.  The  vapor  gas  enters  at  the  bottom  through  an 
annular  inlet  Q  from  the  carburetter  and  fills  the  case  with  a  vapor 
mixture  slightly  heavier  than  the  balanced  can  of  air,  which  is 
thus  caused  to  rise  and  open  the  direct  air  inlet  valve  C,  admit- 
ting air  at  a  slightly  increased  pressure,  due  to  differential  friction, 
as  between  the  short-air  connection  with  air  pump  and  the  long- 
pipe  connection  to  the  carburetter  and  back  to  the  regulator. 

By  the  delicate  screw  adjustment  of  the  counterpoise  weight 
at  O  the  exact  conditions  for  a  uniform  gravity  gas  supply  may 
be  obtained  for  lighting.  This  is  assumed  to  be  also  the 
most  economical  for  combustion  in  an  explosive  motor;  it  then 
requiring  only  the  regulating  admixture  of  air  at  the  inlet  valve 
of  the  motor  cylinder  for  adjusting  the  force  of  explosion  and 
for  regulating  the  speed  of  the  motor. 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


CARBURETTERS. 


73 


Fig.  2OC  shows  the  arrangement  of  setting  the  air  pump  and 
regulator  with  the  short-circuit  of  the  air  pipe  to  give  a  prepon- 
derance to  the  air  pressure  at  the  regulating  valve  C.  For  motor 
service  a  gas  equalizing  bag  should  be  used  as  with  other  kinds 
of  gas  supply. 

A  strong  feature  of  this  carburetter,  as  illustrated  at  page  65, 
is  the  large  evaporating  surface,  it  being  in  fact  a  compound 
generator  consisting  of  a  number  of  independent  and  perfect 
evaporators,  one  placed  over  the  other.  The  effect  of  cold  by 
evaporation  commences  at  the  bottom  pan,  and  the  saturation 
of  the  air  is  completed  in  the  next  pan,  and  so  on  successively, 
so  that  deterioration  does  not  commence  until  the  last  or  top 
pan  is  partially  exhausted. 

The  air  pump  is  of  the  wet  gas  meter  type  with  the  motion 
inverted  and  propelled  by  a  weight  as  shown  in  Fig.  2oc,  or  by 
a  small  overshot  water  wheel  operated  by  a  jet  from  any  source 
of  water  pressure. 

ATOMIZING   CARBURETTERS  AND   VAPORIZERS. 

In  Fig.  200  is  illustrated  a  heat  vaporizer  used  on  the  "Cap- 
itaine"  motor  in  which  the  inlet  nozzle  V  is  ribbed  on  the  outside 


FlG.    20D. — HEAT   VAPORIZEP. 


and  is  enclosed  in  a  chamber  through  which  the  exhaust  passes. 

Gasoline  and  air  are  drawn  into  the  nozzle  regulated  by  the 
small  valve,  and  additional  air  for  the  explosive  mixture  is  drawn 
in  by  the  piston  through  the  large  valve.  By  this  arrangement  the 


74 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


gasoline  is  broken  up  and  thrown  against  the  hot  walls  of  the 
nozzle  by  the  air  drawn  through  the  small  air  inlet. 

The  atomizing  vaporizer  (Fig.  2OE)  is  conveniently  placed  on 
the  side  of  a  cylinder  with  the  exhaust  valve  G  spindle  in  line 
with  the  exhaust  push  rod. 

The  gasoline  is  injected  through  the  small  valve  C,  opened 


FlG.    2OE. — ATOMIZING   VAPORIZER. 


l>y  the  lift  of  the  air  valve  D.  ihe  inlet  valve  E  makes  a  closure 
of  the  vaporizing  chamber  during  the  compression  and  exhaust 
stroke  of  the  piston. 

The  constant-level  feed  atomizer  (Fig.  2OF)  is  of  French  origin 
and  used  on  the  "Abeille"  automobile  motor.  It  regulates  irs 
feed  from  a  higher  level  reservoir  or  tank,  by  means  of  a  float  B 
in  the  receiver  A.  which,  by  its  floating  position,  opens  a  small 
conical  valve  on  the  lower  end  of  the  spindle  C  through  the  opera- 


CARBURETTERS. 


75 


tion  of  the  lever  D.  The  spindle  C  being  a  counterpoise  weight 
to  close  the  inlet  valve  when  the  float  B  exceeds  the  proper  height. 

The  level  of  the  gasoline  in  the  receiver  is  adjusted  to  stand 
just  below  the  top  of  the  jet  nozzle  at  E. 

An  inlet  for  air  to  meet  the  gasoline  jet  J  at  the  neck  of  the 
double  cone  H  is  shown  in  the  circular  opening  in  the  oval  flange. 
The  suction  of  the  piston  during  the  charging  stroke  jets  the 
gasoline  against  the  perforated  cone  with  the  annular  jet  of  air 
from  below,  where  it  is  met  by  the  diluting  air  from  the  holes 


FlG.  20F. — CONSTANT  LEVEL  ATOMIZER. 


in  the  cone.  The  cap  L  has  holes  corresponding  with  the  holes  on 
the  inner  section  for  adjusting  the  area  of  the  diluting  air  inlet 
by  rotation  on  its  screw  thread.  The  jet  nozzle  can  be  quickly 
removed,  cleaned  or  adjusted  by  removing  the  plug  F. 

A  vaporizer  having  some  excellent  features  for  perfecting  the 
vapor  and  air  mixture  before  it  enters  the  cylinder  is  detailed  in 
Fig.  2OG  and  patented  by  Walter  Hay,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

The  gasoline  enters  the  small  annular  chamber  aa  through  the 
pipe  d.  Several  small  holes  open  from  the  annular  chamber  upon 
the  central  line  of  the  valve  seat  of  the  inlet  air  valve  E,  some  of 


76 


GAS,   GASOLINE  AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


which  have  screw  needle  valves  for  regulating  the  flow  of  gasoline. 
The  inrush  of  air  when  the  valve  opens  by  the  draft  of  the  piston 
atomizes  the  inflowing  gasoline  and  precipitates  the  atoms  upon 
the  deep  wings  of  a  fan  h  hung  upon  the  central  spindle  /.  The 
fan  is  set  in  motion  by  the  inrush  of  air,  and  throwing  the  excess 
of  gasoline  against  the  hot  walls  of  the  annular  exhaust  chamber 
a'f,  produces  a  perfect  mixture  of  vapor  and  air  before  passing 
through  the  second  inlet  valve  A.  The  exhaust  in  passing  around 
the  annular  chamber  also  imparts  heat  to  the  annular  gasoline 


FlG.  20G. — THE    **  HAY  "   VAPORIZER. 

chamber  aar  and  makes  its  final  exit  through  the  slotted  apertures- 
in  the  outer  casing,  as  at  g,  or  may  pass  into  an  exhaust  pipe. 

We  illustrate  in  Figs.  2OH  and  20  i  two  forms  of  atomizers  or 
mixing  valves  which  have  been  designed  for  use  on  gasoline  en- 
gines. They  take  the  place  of  carburetters,  and,  for  certain  pur- 
poses, users  have  found  them  efficient  and  reliable.  The  construc- 
tion of  these  valves  is  very  simple.  They  have  few  parts,  and 


CARBURETTERS. 


77 


there  is  no  liability  of  their  proving  troublesome  after  having  been 
used  a  short  while. 

Referring  to  the  sectional  views  it  will  be  seen  that  the  valve 
disk  E  is  held  against  its  seat  by  a  light  spring  M.  The  seat  of 
this  valve  is  wide,  and  the  port  opening  slightly  smaller  in  diam- 
eter than  the  pipe  connections.  The  body  of  the  valve  L  below 
the  valve  disk  is  of  full  area.  At  the  side  of  the  valve  body  is 
a  gasoline  inlet  O  tapped  for  ^4-inch  pipe  thread.  From  the  side 
gasoline  inlet  O  a  passageway  of  ample  area  leads  around  and 
through  the  valve  body  and  is  in  communication  with  the  main 

SECTION  ON  ArB. 
p 


FlG.    20H. — ANGLE   ATOMIZER. 


SECTION  ON  A-B. 


FlG.   SOI. — VERTICAL   ATOMIZER. 

Talve  seat.  The  opening  of  this  passageway  K  into  the  valve  seat 
is  controlled  by  a  small  needle  valve  F,  which  has  an  indicator 
arm  G. 

The  valve  stem  F  has  a  stuffing  box  H  so  as  to  enable  it  to  be 
well  packed  to  prevent  leakage  of  gasoline. 

In  this  construction  no  gasoline  is  spilled,  nor  will  it  accumu- 
late in  the  valve  body ;  any  excessive  amount  will  be  drawn  into 
the  vaporizing  space  between  this  and  the  inlet  valve.  The  sizes 


78  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

are  designated  by  the  pipe  size  of  the  screw  and  are  rated  for 
cylinder  sizes  as  follows : 


Diameter  of  Cylinder,  inches  
Size  Pipe  Connection  on  Generator 

2 

| 

3* 
f 

4* 
i 

54 
ii 

7 

Ti 

8 

2 

IO 

2i 

12 

7-J 

14 

3 

The  above  proportions  are  based  on  a  piston  travel  of  not  more 
than  600  feet  per  minute.  For  higher  speeds  than  this  the  genera- 
tor valve  should  be  the  next  size  larger  than  shown  above. 

The  valves  are  made  by  the  Lunkenheimer  Company,  Cin- 
cinnati, O. 

The  plan  and  section  of  a  noiseless  automatic  carburetter  ;s 


Fig.  1.. 


FlG.    20J. — KINGSTON   CARBURETTER. 


shown  in  Fig.  20  j.   It  is  well  suited  for  charging  multiple  cylinder 
motors  and  is  very  uniform  in  its  supply.     The  upper  section  of 


CARBURETTERS.  79 

the  cut  shows  the  plan  of  the  float  tank,  valve  and  the  wire  gauze 
in  the  air  pipe,  of  which  there  are  sufficient  in  number,  say  nine, 
to  give  a  large  wire  surface  for  fully  evaporating  any  charge  of 
gasoline  for  the  motor  for  which  the  size  of  carburetter  is 
adapted. 

Referring  to  section  of  carburetter  as  cut  on  a  line  AB,  with 
position  of  adjusting  screw  shown  at  a.  The  level  of  gasoline 
being  lifted  automatically  by  the  suction  of  the  motor,  the  supply 
is  shown  below  point  of  adjusting  screw,  the  gasoline 
being  regulated  by  the  needle  point  on  screw  which  forms  the 
spraying  nozzle  and  the  constant  level  being  maintained  at  all 
times  by  the  ball  valve  v,  which  has  a  capacity  much  greater  than 
outlet  at  needle  point,  so  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  lower  the  level  of  gasoline.  And  the  float  acting  as  it 
does  on  the  lever  I,  and  /  resting  as  it  does  squarely  on  the  center 
of  the  ball  and  the  ball  fitted  in  a  perfect  seat,  the  float  being" 
hinged  to  lever,  it  will  be  seen  that  any  vibration  that  would 
cause  the  float  to  shake  within  the  cup  will  not  disturb  the  ball, 
which  will  maintain  a  constant  level  through  any  kind  of  vibra- 
tion, making  it  perfectly  adapted  to  engines  and  motors  for  trac- 
tion or  marine  purposes  as  well  as  stationary.  This  carburetter 
may  be  used  with  a  throttling  governor  if  desired.  It  is  built  in 
five  sizes.  No.  o  is  the  bicycle  size ;  No.  i  the  light  automobile, 
marine  and  stationary  size,  with  i-inch  pipe  connection;  No.  2 
with  1*4 -inch  pipe  connection;  No.  3  writh  ij/2-inch  pipe  connec- 
tion ;  No.  4  with  2-inch  pipe  connection,  and  larger  sizes  to  order. 
They  are  made  by  the  Kingston  Manufacturing  Company,  Ko- 
komo,  Ind. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  2OK  a  vaporizer  of  the  constant-level  type 
with  a  regulating  device  in  which  the  index  to  the  gasoline  feed  is 
adjusted  by  a  sector  and  worm  screw  which  cannot  be  displaced 
by  jar  or  vibration.  A  very  suitable  and  easily  attached  vaporizer 
for  medium  to  small  sized  motors. 

Referring  to  Fig.  2OL  it  will  be  seen  that  the  device  is  very  com- 
pact, practically  all  of  it  being  contained  in  a  space  but  little  larger 


8o 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


in  diameter  than  the  ordinary  inlet  pipe.  Gasoline  enters  from 
the  supply  through  the  pipe  m  filling  the  reservoir  d  and  over- 
flowing through  the  passage  g  to  the  pipe  /.  Air  enters  through 
the  openings  in  the  cap  e,  which  serves  to  throttle  the  air  supply. 
Passing  around  the  chamber  d  it  produces  a  draft  which  draws 
fuel  from  the  reservoir  through  the  nipple  c  and  the  plug  valve  i 
which  is  counterbored  at  j.  Passing  onward  the  mixture  of  gaso- 
line and  air  leaves  the  casing  a  through  the  pipe  b  which  is 
threaded  so  that  it  may  be  connected  to  the  inlet  of  the  engine. 


FlG.    2OK. — ALDRICH    VAPORIZER. 


FlG.    2OL. — SECTION. 


The  vent  h  keeps  the  pressure  constant  within  the  reservoir  and 
the  gasoline  may  be  drained  through  the  cock  k. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  with  gasoline  vaporizers  will 
at  once  recognize  the  good  features  of  this  device,  which  are  the 
location  of  the  gasoline  nozzle  in  the  center  of  the  air  passage, 
the  location  of  the  fuel  valve  close  to  the  opening  of  -the  nozzle 
into  the  air  passage  and  the  general  compactness  of  the  entire 
vaporizer.  It  is  manufactured  by  R.  &  W.  T.  Aldrich,  Millville, 
Mass. 


CHAPTER    X. 
CYLINDER  CAPACITY   OF   GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES. 

THE  cylinder  volume  of  gas  and  gasoline  engines  seems  to 
be  as  variable  with  the  different  builders  as  it  is  with  steam 
•engines  in  its  relation  to  the  indicated  power. 

The  proportion  of  diameter  to  stroke  varies  from  equal 
measures  up  to  38  per  cent,  greater  stroke  than  the  measure  of 
the  cylinder  diameter.  The  extreme  volumes  of  cylinder  ca- 
pacity (measured  by  the  stroke)  varies  from  28  to  56  cubic 
inches  for  a  i  H.  p.  engine  and  from  48  to  98  cubic  inches  for  a  2 
H.P.  engine;  for  a  3  H.P.  engine  from  77  to  142  cubic  inches, 
while  for  a  6  H.  p.  engine  it  ranges  from  182  to  385  cubic  inches. 
This  disparity  in  sizes  for  equal  indicated  power  may  be  caused 
by  the  different  kinds  of  gas  and  its  air  mixtures  under  which 
the  trials  for  indicated  power  may  have  been  made,  or  it  may 
be  partly  due  to  relative  clearance  and  facility  for  exploding 
the  charge  at  some  fixed  time. 

It  may  be  readily  seen  from  inspection  of  the  heat  value  of 
different  kinds  of  gas — varying  as  they  do  from  about  950  heat 
units  per  cubic  foot  for  the  highest  illuminating  gas  to  from 
185  to  66  heat  units  in  the  different  qualities  of  producer  gas — 
that  large  variations  in  effective  power  will  result  from  a  given 
sized  cylinder.  It  will  also  be  plainly  seen  that  with  the  ex- 
treme dilution  of  producer  gas  with  the  neutral  elements  that 
produce  no  heat  effect,  that  no  combination  with  air  that  also 
contains  80  per  cent,  of  non-combustible  element  can  produce 
•even  a  modicum  of  power  in  the  same  sized  cylinder  as  is  used 
for  a  high -power  gas. 

In  view  of  this  it  seems  necessary  to  build  explosive  engines 
with  cylinder  capacities  due  to  the  heat  unit  power  of  the -com- 


82 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


bustible  intended  to  be  used,  as  well  as  to  the  method  of  its 
application. 

In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  indicated  and  actual 
power,  revolutions,  and  size  of  cylinder  and  stroke  of  various 
styles  of  gas  engines  for  comparison : 


THE  SINTZ. 

THE  ATKINSON  CYCLE. 

Horse- 
power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

Horse- 
power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

I  

425 
400 

375 
350 
300 
270 
250 
225 

3* 

4t 

5 
5f 
6£ 
8 
9 

31 
4 

6 
6 

8 
9 

2  

1  80 
1  80 
160 
150 
150 
140 
130 
1  20 

41 

5* 

* 

H 

9i 

10 
12 

4t 
5* 

H 

H 

& 

;$ 

2  

7  .  . 

o.  . 

5  

7 

6        .   . 

8        .... 

12  ... 

10  

16  

m.  . 

20  

THE  NASH. 


PACIFIC. 


Actual 
horse- 
power. 

Resolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

Actual 
horse- 
power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

1. 

•a  CQ 

•i 

4 

I-J  

2^O 

4t 

6 

£.  . 

•2CQ 

3-1 

4i.  . 

22^ 

6i 

I  

12«; 

4 

4-i 

6  

2OO 

7 

10 

2  

300 

5 

5 

3.  . 

^oo 

4  

300 

280 

LAWSON  ENGINE. 


STAR. 


Actual 
horse- 
power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

Actual 
horse- 
power. 

Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 

Diameter 
of 
cylinder. 
Inch. 

Stroke. 
Inch. 

I    

1  80 

*i 

8 

2  

250 

4i 

6 

2  

1  60 

5 

10 

a  .  . 

240 

5 

6 

1  60 

8j 

12 

4  

2  2O 

5i 

10 

6  

160 

7} 

14 

6  

2  2O 

6^ 

12 

8      

1  80 

7 

1^ 

1  80 

8 

CYLINDER     CAPACITY. 


RATING  OF  SOME  ENGLISH  ENGINES. 


Indicated 
Horse  Power. 

Revolutions. 

Diameter. 
Inches. 

Stroke. 
Inches. 

Name. 

164 

6 

16 

Crossley. 

Q 

164 

8 

16 

20O 

y 

JC 

iti 

16  

1  60 

H^ 

2O 

Burl's  Otto 

18  

1  80 

nU 

16 

<  t                    «< 

IQ. 

1  60 

oV<£ 

18 

Crossley 

2O  

184 

g3| 

17 

Stockport. 

2O  ,    

164 

12 

18 

Wells. 

24.  . 

1  80 

IO 

18 

Barker's  Otto 

1  7O 

12 

20 

1  1           <i 

33  

2IO 

17 

2iv 

Crossley. 

40  

i  Go 

18 

24 

Tan  eve. 

The  apparent  discrepancies  in  the  above  table  of  cylinder 
capacities,  as  to  their  size  when  compared  with  their  indicated 
power,  are  not  really  so  great  as  may  be  noticed  at  first  inspec- 
tion ;  for  the  mean  pressure  varies  very  much  with  the  various 
fuels,  as  well  also  from  the  relative  variation  of  the  propor- 
tion between  the  volume  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  the 
volume  swept  by  the  piston.  The  difference  in  speed  between 
the  various  engines  noted  also  complicates  the  direct  compari- 
son for  cylinder  capacities. 

The  whole  subject  of  size  and  weight  of  explosive  engines 
for  stated  powers  appears  to  be  still  in  the  experimental  stage, 
which  by  continued  experiment  and  experience  may  be  brought 
into  an  approximate  uniformity  in  practice. 

Cylinder  Diameter  and  Stroke. 

The  practice  in  cylinder  proportions  in  the  United  States  ap- 
pears to  vary  considerably  among  engine  builders,  from  equal 
diameter  and  stroke  to  from  i%  to  i^  their  diameter  for  length 
of  stroke,  while  in  Europe  the  smaller-sized  engines  have  strokes 
of  more  than  twice  the  diameter,  grading  to  il/2  times  in  the 
larger  engines. 

Like  the  steam  engine  cylinder  proportions,  there  seems  to 
be  no  settled  opinion  as  to  the  best  ratio,  except  that  high  speed 
indicates  short  stroke.  The  longer  stroke  European  engines  are 
quoted  as  low  speed  and  run  at  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  the 
speed  of  most  American  engines  of  the  same  caliber. 


84  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

In  the  following  table  of  gas  and  gasoline  engine  dimensions 
we  have  figured  the  speed  at  about  the  maximum  rate  and  have 
endeavored  to  show  about  the  average  practice  with  builders  of 
four-cycle  engines  in  the  United  States  for  ordinary  power  use. 

The  table  has  been  computed  for  convenient  measurement  for 
amateur  use  and  may  not  meet  the  exact  and  decimal  values  for 
expert  designers. 

In  assigning  these  values  a  consideration  of  60  pounds  M.E.P., 
with  a  clearance  of  from  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  the  piston  stroke 
has  been  made  for  the  combustion  chamber. 

The  tabulated  horse-power  has  been  computed  on  the  basis 
of  the  M.  E.  P.  of  60  pounds  per  square  inch  with  an  adiabatic  com- 
pression of  -=2-r  of  the  total  volume  and  a  mean  back  pressure 

from  the  compression  stroke  of  26  pounds  per  square  inch,  which 
is  deducted  from  the  mean  "of  the  explosive  pressure  stroke  of  89 
pounds  per  square  inch ;  which  being  63  pounds,  from  which  a 
deduction  of  3  pounds  is  made  for  losses  from  leakage,  leaves  a 
net  mean  pressure  of  60  pounds. 

Then  the  cylinder  area  X  mean  explosive  pressure  --  mean 
compression  pressure  X  impulse  stroke  travel  in  feet  per  minute 
and  product  divided  by  33,000  =  indicated  horse-power. 

A  x  M  E  p.  x  S 

=  I.H  P. 

33,000 

To  obtain  the  value  of  S,  multiply  the  stroke  in  feet  or  decimals 
of  a  foot  by  one-half  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  which 
is  the  impulse  travel  of  the  piston  per  minute.  If  misfires  are 
made  they  should  be  deducted  from  the  half  number  of  revolu- 
tions in  practice. 

As  an  example  of  an  8  X  10  four-cycle  engine  at  300  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  we  have  area  of  cylinder  50.26  square  inches  and 

S  =  iJ*-x-£2.  =  125     feet    piston    travel    per    minute.       Then 

^0.26  x  60  v  125 

— —  =  11.41    I.H. P.,  which   we  have  rated   as    10   ac- 
33,000 

tual  horse-power  in  the  table.   In  the  smaller  engines  the  difference 


CYLINDER    CAPACITY.  85 

between  indicated  and  actual  horse-power  increases  as  the  size 
diminishes. 

The  thicknesses  of  cylinder  wall,  water-jacket  and  water  space 
have  been  assigned  with  due  regard  for  overcharged  explosions 
and  the  possibilities  in  core-making  for  the  water  space ;  they  are 
often  made  thicker  than  given  in  the  table. 

The  length  of  the  connecting  rod  from  center  to  center  is  made 
from  medium  practice,  or  about  2^4  times  the  stroke  with  the 
piston  pin  at  the  center  of  the  piston. 

The  figured  dimensions  of  piston  pins  of  the  same  bearing 
length  as  the  crank-pin,  as  also  the  crank-pins  and  shaft,  are  de- 
rived approximately  from  formulas  which  we  find  variable  with 
different  writers  as  well  as  variable  in  size  by  different  builders 
of  explosive  motors.  The  dimensions  in  the  table  are  a  medium 
suitable  to  a  clearance  ratio  of  3  to  3.5. 

APPROXIMATE   DIMENSIONS   OF  FOURCYCLE   MOTOR  PARTS. 

For  M.E.P.   60  Ib.     Clearance,   30  to  33  per  cent.     Compression,  50  to  60  Ib. 
Explosive  Pressure,   160  to  200  Ib. 


Actual 
Horse  Powe 


2  . 

3  • 
4f- 
7  . 

10  . 

13  . 
17  • 

22    . 

30  . 

43  • 

57  . 


500 
450 

425 
400 
350 
350 


Ins.  Ins 
2 
4 


350 
325 

320    7 
300    8 

275    9 
250  10 

2OO  12 


175 


150 


14 


6016 


18 


4i 
4i 
5 

5i 
6i 
74 
8* 
10 

Hi 

124 

15 

17 

20 

22* 


Int. 

I 


hickne 
nder  W 


Ins. 


Spa 


Ins. 


Abs  or 


Ins. 
Ribs 
Ribs 


Ins. 
8 
9 

94 

oi 

Hi 
12 


Ins, 


A 


Ins. 

• 


Ins. 


3| 


6* 


Size 

Jou 


Le 
in  J 


Ins. 


Diam 
Fly  W 


ize 
Va 


Lb.    Ins. 

66 
133 

200 
270 

475 
525 
575 
8oc 

1130 
1500 

2350  2* 
3600 

6000  3i 
95004 
10500  5 


t 


Size 
Exhaust  Valve. 


Ins. 


3* 
4 

6 


86 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


The  diameters  and  weights  of  flywheels  vary  to  a  considerable 
extent  among  engines  by  different  builders  to  adapt  them  to 
special  service  where  the  steadiness  of  speed  is  a  special  factor  of 
design. 

For  electric-lighting  purposes,  either  or  both  diameter  and 
weight  of  the  flywheels  may  be  increased  above  the  tabulated  fig- 
ures, which  have  been  computed  for  ordinary  power  service. 

The  sizes  of  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  have  been  figured 
for  a  free  inlet  and  discharge  at  the  maximum  speed  in  the  second 
column  of  the  table.  For  higher  speeds  of  special  motors  the 
valve  area  should  be  somewhat  increased. 

TEMPERATURE    AND    PRESSURES. 

Owing  to  the  decrease  from  atmospheric  pressure  in  the  in- 
drawing  charge  of  the  cylinder,  caused  by  valve  and  frictional 
obstruction,  the  compression  seldom  starts  above  13  pounds  abso- 
lute, especially  in  high-speed  engines.  Col.  3  in  the  following 
table  represents  the  approximate  absolute  compression  pressure 

GAS  ENGINE  CLEARANCE  RATIOS,  APPROXIMATE  COMPRESSION,  TEMPERATURES 
OF  EXPLOSION  AND  EXPLOSIVE  PRESSURES  WITH  A  MIXTURE  OF  GAS  OF  660 
HEAT  UNITS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  AND  MIXTURE  OF  GAS  i  TO  6  OF  AIR. 


learance  Per  Cent, 
of  Piston  Volume. 

"o 

tl 

.  ":  1 

"«  Clearance. 

pproximate  Com- 
pression from  ij 
Ibs.  Absolute. 

pproximate  Gauge 
Pressure. 

bsolnte  Tempera- 
ture of  Compres- 
sion from  560°  F. 
in  Cylinder. 

bsolute  Tempera- 
ture of  Explosion. 
Gas,  i  part  ;  Air, 
6  parts. 

pproximate  Explo- 
sion Pressure  Ab- 
solute. 

pproximate  Gauge 
Pressure. 

pproximate  Tem- 
erature  of  Explo- 
ion,  Fahrenheit. 

O 

•< 

< 

< 

< 

•< 

< 

<"" 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Lbs. 

Deg. 

Deg. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Deg. 

.50 

3. 

57. 

42. 

822. 

2488 

169 

144 

.444 

3-25 

65. 

50. 

846. 

2568 

197 

182 

2107 

.40 

3.50 

70. 

55- 

868. 

2638 

212 

J97 

2177 

.363 

3-75 

77. 

62. 

889. 

2701 

234 

219 

2237 

•  333 

4. 

84. 

69. 

910. 

2751 

254 

239 

2290 

.285 

4.50 

102. 

88. 

955. 

2842 

303 

288 

2378 

.25 

5- 

114. 

99- 

9«3. 

2901 

336 

321 

2448 

for  the  clearance  percentage  and  ratio  in  Cols,  i  and  2,  while  Col. 
4  indicates  the  gauge  pressure  from  the  atmospheric  line. 


CYLINDER     CAPACITY.  8/ 

The  temperatures  in  Col.  5  are  due  to  the  compression  in  Col. 
3  from  an  assumed  temperature  of  560  degs.  F.  in  the  mixture 
of  the  fresh  charge  of  6  air  to  I  gas  with  the  products  of  com- 
bustion left  in  the  clearance  chamber  from  the  exhaust  stroke  cf 
.a  medium-speed  motor. 

This  temperature  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  from  the 
difference  in  the  heat  unit  power  of  the  gases  and  vapors  used 
for  explosive  power  as  also  of  the  cylinder  cooling  effect. 

In  Col.  6  is  given  the  approximate  temperatures  of  explosion 
of  a  mixture  of  air  6  to  gas  I  of  660  heat  units  per  cubic  foot, 
for  the  relative  values  of  the  clearance  ratio  in  Col.  2  at  constant 
volume. 

The  formulas  for  the  above  approximate  table  avoiding  deci- 
mal values  are  as  follows  : 


/e  +  /'  =  absolute  pressure  Col.  3. 
.35  log.  Ratio  =  log.  y-  Col.  5. 

.     rrt 

±j-=P  absolute  pressure  Col.  7.  P—  ^=Col.  8.    7*—  46i°=Col.  9. 

*• 

p,  —  absolute  pressure  of  compression. 

p  =  initial  absolute  pressure  in  cylinder  before  compres- 
sion, 13  Ib. 

P  =  absolute  pressure  of  explosion. 
T  —  absolute  explosion  temperature. 

/  =  initial  absolute  temperature  in  cylinder  after  charge 
560°  Fahr. 

te  =  absolute  temperature  of  compression. 

The  explosive  absolute  temperature  in  Col.  6  decreases  in  pro- 
portion to  the  dilution  of  the  gas  with  air  until  with  the  propor- 
tion of  12  air  to  I  gas,  but  69  per  cent,  of  the  temperature  given 
in  Col.  6  is  available.  The  decrease  in  pressure  follows  in  a  like 
proportion. 

In  Col.  7  is  given  the  absolute  explosive  pressure  due  to  the 


88  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

conditions    in    the   preceding   columns    and   computed    from   the 

.       <T> 

formula   — —  =  P,  in  which  pc  =  absolute  compression  pressure 

Col.  3.  T  =  absolute  explosive  temp.  Col.  6.  t  =  absolute  com- 
pression temperature  Col.  5,  for  each  ratio  in  Col.  2. 

Col.  8  is  the  gauge  pressure  derived  from  the  absolute  pres- 
sures in  Col.  7. 

Col.  9  is  the  explosive  temperature  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale, 
T  —  461  degs. 

MUFFLERS    ON     GAS    ENGINES. 

The  method  of  muffling  the  sound  of  the  exhaust,  as  well 
also  the  sound  or  clack  of  the  valves,  was  a  puzzling  problem 
to  the  early  builders  of  gas  engines.  The  matter  has  finally 
sifted  down  to  a  plain  cast-iron  box  of  from  i  to  3  cubic  feet 
capacity,  set  near  the  engine,  and  into  which  the  exhaust  pipe- 
is  connected,  and  continued  by  a  separate  connection  to  the  out- 
side of  a  building. 

Connection  of  the  exhaust  with  a  chimney  should  not  be 
made  under  any  circumstances,  as  there  are  unknown  elements 
of  explosion  liable  to  be  accumulated  in  the  line  of  the  exhaust 
that  might  do  damage  to  a  chimney;  and  for  the  same  reason 
the  muffler-box  should  be  made  strong  enough  for  a  pressure 
equal  to  the  explosive  power  of  the  gas  and  air  mixture,  or  say 
175  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  insures  safety  from  any  explo- 
sion that  may  accidentally  occur  in  the  exhaust  by  missed  ex- 
plosions in  the  cylinder,  or  otherwise. 

The  muffler  pot  is  also  a  water-catch,  in  which  part  of  the 
water  vapor  formed  by  the  union  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
is  condensed.  It  should  have  a  draw-off  cock  a  few  inches  above 
the  bottom,  so  that  the  muffler  may  always  have  a  little  water  in 
the  bottom,  the  water  having  been  found  to  have  a  deadening 
effect  on  the  exhaust. 

A  second  muffler  pot  has  been  found  to  still  further  deaden 
the  exhaust,  and  is  preferable  to  throttling  the  exhaust  by  mufflers- 
with  perforated  diaphragms. 


CYLINDER    CAPACITY.  8(^ 

In  all  cases  an  enlargement  of  the  exhaust  pipe  from  the  muf- 
fler to  the  roof  by  one  or  two  sizes  larger  than  the  engine  exhaust, 
will  modify  the  intensity  of  the  exhaust  at  the  roof,  and  often 
abate  a  nuisance. 

Mufflers  for  automobiles  and  launches  have  been  the  subject 
of  much  designing  in  order  to  have  them  meet  the  requirement 
of  almost  absolute  silence  so  much  to  be  desired.  The  method 
of  perforated  tubes  with  wire  cloth  casings  of  large  area  for 
cutting  the  exhaust  into  infinitesimal  streams  and  of  so  large  an 
area  that  the  back  pressure  may  be  reduced  to  an.  imperceptible 
amount,  seems  to  be  in  the  right  direction  for  vehicles,  and  an 
extension  of  the  terminal  under  water  at  the  stern  of  launches 
with  a  small  vent  above  water  has  given  good  results.  The  vent 
prevents  water  drawing  back  to  the  muffler  when  the  motor  stops. 
For  large  stationary  motors  a  variety  of  designs  for  the  internal 
space  of  a  muffler  box  have  been  made,  all  seeming  to  tend  to 
obtain  the  desired  conditions.  A  series  of  perforated  plates,  both 
flat  and  circular;  small  stones  filling  the  muffler  box,  through 
which  the  exhaust  passes ;  a  spiral  case  within  the  muffler  box ; 
in  fact  almost  any  device  that  tends  to  stop  the  sudden  impact  of 
the  exhaust  and  its  expansion  are  the  means  that  modify  and  in 
a 'measure  prevent  the  noisy  propensities  of  the  explosive  motor. 

To  prevent  nuisance  to  neighbors  by  open  air  exhaust,  the 
turning  down  of  the  exhaust,  pipe  into  a  barrel  or  second  muffler 
pot  with  a  few  inches  of  water,  has  given  satisfaction  in  many 
cases.  It  prevents  the  spread  of  oil  vapor  into  neighboring 
windows. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 

THE  regulation  of  the  speed  of  explosive  engines   has  an 
important  bearing  upon  their  usefulness  and  freedom  from 


PIG.  21.— THE  ROBEY  GOVERNOR. 


constant  personal  attention.     By  experience  from  trials  during 
the  few  years  of  the  growth  of  the  new  motor,  much  progress 


GOVERNORS    AND    VALVE    GEAR.  91 

tias  been  made  in  perfecting  the  details  of  this  important  ad- 
junct of  safety  and  uniformity  in  speed  regulation  through  the 
-action  of  a  governor.  There  are  four  principal  methods  in  use 


PIG.  21  A. —THE  ROBEY  GOVERNOR. 

for  controlling  the  speed,  viz. :  (i)  By  graduating  the  supply 
of  the  hydrocarbon  element ;  (2)  by  completely  cutting  off  the 
supply  during  one  or  more  revolutions  of  the  crank;  (3)  by 
holding  the  exhaust  valve  open  or  closed  during  one  or  more 
strokes ;  (4)  in  electric  ignition  by  arresting  the  operation  of 
the  sparking  device. 

To  vary  the  quantity  of  the  hydrocarbon  by  the  action  of 


92  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  governor  is  claimed  to  be  the  most  economical  as  well  as- 
the  most  satisfactory  method  in  use,  if  the  variation  in  the 
work  of  the  engine  does  not  carry  the  charge  beyond  the  limit 
of  combustion;  otherwise  the  second  method  seems  to  give 
the  best  results. 

In  Figs.  2 1  and  21  A  are  two  elevations  of  the  centrifugal  ball 


FIG.  22.— THE  PICK-BLADE  GOVERNOR. 

governor,  as  used  on  the  Robey  and  other  engines  in  Europe- 
and  adopted  with  many  variations  on  a  number  of  American  en- 
gines. In  this  type  the  bell-crank  arm  of  the  governor,  by  its 
centrifugal  action,  raises  or  depresses  a  yoke  and  sleeve  which 
operates  a  bell-crank  lever  with  a  forked  end  astride  a  rotating 
disc  which  rides  on  the  cam  of  the  secondary  shaft.  The  disc 
has  a  lateral  motion  on  the  end  of  the  valve  lever,  so  that  the- 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 


93 


•action  of  the  governor  rides  the  disc  on  to  or  off  the  cam,  and 
thus  makes  a  hit-or-miss  stroke  of  the  valve. 

The  centrifugal  governor  (Fig.  2  2)  is  another  application  of 
the  hit-and-miss  principle,  by  the  use  of  a  pick-blade  operated 


FIG.  23.— INERTIA  GOVERNOR,  PLAN. 

from  the  governor  by  a  balanced  bell  crank  and  connecting  rod 
The  cut  fully  explains  the  detail  of  its  construction  and  opera- 
tion, by  which  an  abnormal  speed  of  the  governor  pul  Is  the 


FIG.  24.— INERTIA    GOVERNOR,  ELEVATION. 

pick  blade  away  from  the  gas-valve  spindle.  In  some  forms 
graduated  notches  are  made  on  the  pick-blade  or  spindle-blade, 
so  that  in  action  the  governor  gives  a  varying  charge  within 


94 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


certain  limits  and  a  mischarge  when  the  speed  is  beyond  the 
limitation. 

The  inertia  governor  used  on  the  Crossley  engine  in  Eng- 


PIG.  25.— THE  VIBRATING  GOVERNOR,  ELEVATION. 

land,  and  with  many  modifications  in  use  on  American  engines, 
is  illustrated  with  plan  and  elevation  in  Figs.  23  and  24,  in 
which  A  is  the  cam  shaft,  B  cam,  C  roller,  D  lever,  H  lever 


FIG.  26.— THE  VIBRATING  GOVERNOR,  PLAN. 

pin,  L  spring  to  hold  the  roller  C  to  the  cam,  J  the  governor 
weight,  K  the  adjusting  spring,  G  the  pick-blade,  and  F  the 
valve  stem. 

In  the  action  of  this  governor  the  initial  line  of  motion  of 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 


95 


the  ball  J,  in  regard  to  its  centre  of  motion  H,  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  curved  line.  By  the  siidden  movement  of  its  pivoted 
centre  L,  the  ball  is  retarded  in  its  motion  by  the  regulating 
spring  K,  which  tends  to  throw  the  pick-blade  G  off  the  shoul- 
der of  the  valve  F. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  inertia  o£  the  vibrating  ball 


FIG.  27.— END  VIEW,  ELEVATION. 

will  vary  as  the  speed  of  vibration,  so  that  by  carefully  adjust- 
ing by  the  spring  K,  the  action  of  the  ball  will  vary  the  disen- 
gagement of  the  pick-blade  to  correspond  with  the  over-speea 
of  the  engine,  and  make  an  entire  miss  at  the  limit  of  its  varia- 
tion. The  air  valve  may  also  be  operated  by  the  spud  E, 

Another  form  of  governor,  involving  the  same  principles  of 


FIG.  88.— THE  PENDULUM  GOVERNOR. 


inertia  as  the  last  one,  is  used  on  the  Stockport  engine  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  25,  26,  and  27.  It  consists  of 
a  weight  A,  balanced  on  the  vibrating  arm  B.  A  groove 
around  the  weight  operates  a  bell  crank,  to  which  the  pick- 


-96  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

"blade  is  attached.  The  balance  spring  is  adjustable  for  regu 
lating  the  position  of  the  pick-blade  and  its  contact  with  the 
valve  spindle.  By  the  variation  in  overcoming  the  inertia  of 
the  weight  by  the  spring  with  different  vibrating  speeds  in  the 
lever,  the  disengagement  of  the  pick-blade  with  the  spindle  - 
blade  is  varied  or  a  mis-stroke  made. 

The  pendulum  governor  (Fig.  28)  is  also  an  inertia  gover- 
nor in  the  principle  on  which  it  operates.  It  is  attached  to  the 
exhaust-valve  push-rod,  and  vibrates  horizontally  with  the  rod. 
The  weight  or  ball  has  an  extension  or  neck,  with  a  pivoted 
•eye,  a  yoke,  and  a  vertical  lug.  The  eye  is  pivoted  in  the  box, 
and  the  yoke  embraces  the  push-blade  stem,  which  is  also  piv- 
oted horizontally  with  the  eye  in  the  box  or  frame.  The  lug 
bears  on  an  adjusting  spring,  which  is  set  up  by  a  screw  so  as 
to  limit  the  swing  of  the  ball  to  the  normal  speed  of  the  engine, 
so  that  when  the  speed  rises  above  the  normal  the  inertia  of 
the  ball  holds  it  back  in  its  vibration  and  lifts  the  push-blade 
out  of  contact  with  the  valve-stem. 

In  some  engines  the  position  of  the  ball  is  reversed,  and  it 
stands  above  the  valve  push-rod  on  a  finger  and  is  made  adjusta- 
ble in  its  length  of  oscillation  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum. 

Several  modifications  of  the  governors  here  described  are  in 
use,  devised  on  the  principles  of  inertia  as  illustrated  in  Figs. 
2Ji.  25,  and  28. 

Apart  from  the  ordinary  methods  of  operating  the  valves  of 
explosive  motors  by  reducing  spur  gear  and  the  reducing  screw 
gear  for  driving  a  cam  shaft  for  four-cycle  engines,  we  illustrate 
in  Fig.  28 A  and  Fig.  286  two  very  simple  methods  of  operating 
the  charging  or  exhaust- valve  by  the  direct  action  of  a  push-rod 
from  an  eccentric  on  the  main  shaft. 

In  Fig.  28 A  the  vertical  section  shows  the  form  of  the  cam 
on  the  central  thread  of  a  two-thread  worm  on  the  main  shaft 
with  the  push-rod  and  valve.  The  horizontal  diagram  shows 
the  worm  and  intermittent  ratchet  wheel  pivoted  in  the  fork  of 
the  push-rod.  At  every  other  revolution  of  the  shaft  the  cam 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 


97 


section  of  the  worm  falls  into  a  shallow  notch  of  the  ratchet  and 
thus  gives  a  push  stroke  of  the  valve  at  every  other  revolution 
of  the  shaft. 


FlG.    28 A. — THE  WORM  CAM  PUSH-ROD, 

Fig.  286  illustrates  another  form  of  ratchet  push-rod.  In 
this  device  the  ratchet  is  mounted  on  a  friction  pin  which  may 
be  adjusted  by  a  thumb- nut  and  soft  washer  so  as  not  to  turn 


FlG.   28B.— THE  RATCHET  PUSH-ROD. 


backward,  yet  may  easily  be  rotated  forward  by  the  motion  of 
the  cam -moved  push-rod.  The  upper  figure  shows  the  tooth  of 
the  push-rod  on  the  shallow  notch  and  missing  contact  with  the 


98  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 

valve  spindle ;  at  the  next  revolution  of  the  shaft  the  tooth  catches 
the  deep  notch  and  makes  contact  with  the  valve  spindle.  The 
throw  of  the  eccentric  should  be  slightly  greater  than  the  dis- 
tance between  two  consecutive  teeth  in  the  ratchet. 

A  governor  of  the  inertia  or  ball  type  can  be  attached  to  the 
push-rod  with  a  step  contact  on  the  valve  spindle,  making  a  very 
simple  valve  movement  and  regulation. 

GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 

The  ring  valve  gear  (Fig.  28c)  is  another  way  of  operating 


FlG.    28C. — RING  VALVE  GEAR. 

the  exhaust  push  rod  of  a  four-cycle  engine  directly  from  a  cam 
on  the  main  shaft.  The  inner  ring  gear  is  swept  around  within 
the  outer  fixed  gear,  skipping  by  one  tooth  at  each  revolution  of 
the  engine  shaft. 

The  outer  stationary  ring  has  twice  the  number  of  teeth  in  the 
ring  gear,  plus  a  hunting  tooth,  which  makes  a  contact  of  a  ring 
gear  tooth  with  the  exhaust  valve  rod  at  every  other  revolu- 
tion. 

A  double-grooved  eccentric  (Fig.  280)  is  another  method  of 
operating  the  exhaust  valve  of  a  four-cycle  engine  by  traversing 
the  push  rod  end,  in  the  grooves  which  cross  each  other  on  one 
side  of  the  cam;  the  groove  on  one  section  of  the  cam  being 
enough  smaller  than  the  groove  on  the  other  section, to  give  the 
valve  its  direct  proper  movement. 

The  spiral  gear  so  much  is  use  on  four-cycle  engines  is  a 
unique  problem  in  design.  Its  velocity  ratio  cannot  be  determined 
by  direct  comparison  of  pitch  diameters,  as  in  spur  gearing,  but 
must  be  found  from  the  angles  of  the  spiral  in  each  gear.  Thus 


GOVERNORS  AND  VALVE  GEAR. 


99 


if  the  spiral  angles  of  two  matched  gears  are  the  same,  the  velocity 
ratio  will  be  inversely  as  the  pitch  diameters;  but  if  the  spiral 
angles  be  not  equal,  the  number  of  teeth  per  inch  of  pitch  diam- 
eter will  vary. 

In  any  case  the  velocity  ratio  will  depend  upon  the  number 
of  teeth  and  their  spiral  angle,  as  expressed  in  the  following  pro- 
portion : 

v,  the  velocity  of  the  small  gear,  is  to  V,  the  velocity  of  the 
large  gear,  as  D,  the  pitch  diameter  of  the  larger,  X  by  the  cosine 
of  its  spiral  angle,  is  to  d,  the  pitch  diameter  of  the  smaller,  X  by 
the  cosine  of  its  spiral  angle. 

For  spiral  gears  of  equal  diameter  for  velocities  of  2  to  i  to 


FIG.  280. — CAM. 


FlG.    2SE. — SPIRAL   GEAR. 


match,  with  the  shafts  at  right  angles,  the  engine  shaft-gear 
should  have  the  lesser  angle  and  the  gear  on  the  reducing  or 
secondary  shaft  should  have  the  greater  angle  as  referred  to 
their  planes  of  motion  respectively.  The  cosines  of  these  angles 
must  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other  on  the  pitch  line  as 
their  velocities,  and  by  inspection  of  a  table  of  sines  and  cosines 
this  relation  is  easily  found ;  for  example,  in  following  along  the 
columns  of  sines  and  cosines  we  find  .44724  is  as  2  to  i  to 
.89448,  which  agrees  nearly  to  26°  34'  and  63°  26',  the  respective 
angles  of  the  teeth  with  their  planes  of  motion  for  equal-sized 
gears.  Their  sum  being  equal  to  90°. 

The  pendulum  governor   (Fig.  28r)   is  a  simple  and  unique 


100 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


arrangement  derived  from  the  musical  beat  pendulum.  It  is 
hung  in  a  frame  that  is  attached  to  and  vibrates  with  the  push 
rod.  The  swing  of  the  pendulum  is  adjusted  by  the  distance  of 
the  small  compensating  ball  from  the  center  of  motion  to  vibrate 


FlG.    28F. — PENDULUM   GOVERNOR. 

synchronously  with  the  push  rod  at  the  required  speed  of  the 
engine.  Increased  speed  increases  the  range  of  vibration  and 
releases  the  curved  pawl  of  the  push  blade  C  and  catches  it  again 
at  the  next  stroke. 

The  differential  cam  (Figs.  280  and  28n)  is  much  in  use  on 
the  Otto  engines  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.     It  is  also 


FlG.    28G. — DIFFERENTIAL 
CAM. 


FlG.    28H. — DIFFERENTIAL  CAM 
GOVERNOR. 


called  the  step  cam  and  is  made  for  from  closed  to  four  grades 
of  valve  lift  with  corresponding  differential  charge.  The  cen- 
trifugal movement  of  the  governor  balls  slides  the  sleeve  on  ,the 
governor  shaft  and  through  the  bell  crank  lever  the  step  cam 


GOVERNORS   AND   VALVE   GEAR. 


101 


sleeve  a  on  the  valve  gear  shaft.  The  disk  roller  b  on  an  arm 
of  a  rock  shaft,  rolls  upon  one  or  the  other  cams  at  c,  thus  vary- 
ing the  movement  of  the  inlet  valve,  which  is  connected  to 
another  arm  of  the  rock  shaft.  The  tread  of  the  roller  b  is 
beveled  and  the  steps  of  the  cam  are  also  beveled  to  match,  so 
that  the  roller  cannot  slip  off  the  cam. 

The  double  port  inlet  valve  (Fig.  28  i)  is  one  of  the  methods 
of  combining  the  charge  of  gas  and  gasoline  directly  into  the 
cylinder.  It  is  made  in  reverse  design  and  with  a  groove  around 


FlG.  28  I. — DOUBLE  PORT 
INLET  VALVE. 


FlG.  28j. — VALVE  GEAR. 


one  or  both  of  the  valve  disk  and  valve  seat,  so  that  the  gas  or 
gasoline  may  be  injected  through  the  seat  or  from  beneath  the 
valve. 

In  Fig.  28  j  is  shown  a  gas  engine  valve  gear  in  which  both 
are  operated  by  an  inlet  and  exhaust  cam  through  a  bent  lever. 
The  form  and  set  of  the  cams  give  the  proper  time  action  and 
the  set  screws  in  the  lever  adjust  the  lift  of  the  valves.  E,  inlet 
valve.  F,  exhaust  valve.  C,  a  double  cam  with  groove  that 
rides  the  sliding  roller  H  alternately  onto  the  inlet  and  exhaust 
section.  The  inlet  valve  is  double  seated,  the  small  flat  disk 
covering  the  gas  inlet  from  the  chamber  K,  the  air  inlet  being 
between  the  disks. 

The  "Union"  valve  gear  has  a  double  push  rod.  The  one  for 
.the  charge  is  operated  by  a  cam  on  the  reducing  gear  with  a 
straight  lever  to  bring  the  rod  in  line  with  the  valve.  A  second 


102 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


cam  and  lever  for  the  exhaust  rod  changes  the  direction  of  the 
push  by  a  bell  crank. 

The  governing  device  of  the  Ruger  and  Olin  gas  and  gasoline 


FIG.  28K.— "UNION"  VALVE  GEAR. 


engine  is  of  the  centrifugal  type  and  consists  of  two  weighted 
levers  L  L,  Fig.  28L,  which  operate  a  small  bell  crank  and  adjust- 


a/// 


FlG.    28L. — CENTRIFUGAL   GOVERNOR. 


able  spindle  which  rides  the  push  roller  onto  or  off  the  exhaust 
cam,  thus  holding  the  exhaust  valve  open  during  excessive  speed. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
IGNITERS  AND  EXPLODERS. 

THE  devices  for  firing-  the  charge  in  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil 
engines  may  be  divided  into  four  types,  with  as  many  varia- 


PlG.  29.— THE  BUNSEN 
BURNER. 


FIG.  30.— THE  OTTO  IGNITION  SLIDE-VALVE. 


tions  in  the  form  of  each  type  as  may  suit  the  requirements  of 
construction  or  the  fancy  of  designers. 

The  simplest-  arrangement  is  probably  the  direct-flame  con- 
tact of  a  gas-burner  in  contact  with  the  walls  of  the  cylinder, 
with  a  hole  through  the  cylinder  wall  that  is  uncovered  at  the 
proper  moment  for  ignition  by  the  movement  of  the  piston,  as 
in  the  earlier  two-cycle  non-compression  engines — the  in- 


IO4 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


Wr^rr^m  n . ; ;   wmm 


O  O 


/  24- Cods  \ 


C  o  m  p  v  e  s  S  ^  & 

i  sjtPf*^. 


I   o  o   I 


FIG.  31,— OPERATION  OF  THE  OTTO  IGNITION  SLIDE-VALVE. 


IGNITERS   AND    EXPLODERS.  105 

draught  of  the  flame  and  explosion  taking  place  at  the  point  in 
the  stroke  at  which  the  charge  of  gas  and  air  mixture  is  com- 
pleted. This  igniter  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  partially  aerated 
gas  or  vapor  mixture,  flowing  through  a  tube  constructed  like 
a  Bunsen  burner,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29,  the  burner  being  set 
with  its  mouth  just  below  the  igniting  port  in  the  cylinder,  with 
an  outside  guard  tube  to  keep  the  flame  steady;  or  a  large 
flame  may  be  used  in  contact  with  the  port,  as  shown  in  the 
illustration  of  the  economic  gas  engine,  further  on. 

This  form  of  igniter  is  also  used  on  compression  engines  of 
the  four-cycle  type,  with  slide-valves  enclosing  ignition  cham- 
bers, notably  on  European  and  American  engines  of  the  Otto 
slide-valve  type. 

Fig.  30  shows  a  section  of  a  cylinder  head  with  position  of 
flame,  guard  chimney,  and  slide-valve  at  the  moment  of  ig- 
nition. 

Fig.  3 1  is  a  sectional  view  of  the  ports  in  the  slide-valve  and 
cylinder  head  of  an  Otto  slide-valve  engine,  showing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ports  at  different  points  in  the  stroke.  No.  i,  cyl- 
inder charging  with  air  and  gas,  in  which  a  is  the  air  port,  g 
the  gas  port,  b  the  back  port  in  the  slide  .r,  and  b'  the  ignition 
port.  No.  2,  position  of  the  slide  during  the  return  or  com- 
pression stroke.  No.  3,  movement  of  the  ignition  port  from 
the  flame  to  the  cylinder  port.  No.  4,  reversal  of  the  slide 
movement  during  the  pressure  stroke. 

Fig.  32  illustrates  the  piston  igniter  as  used  on  some  of  the 
Nash  engines,  where  e  is  the  gas  jet,  d  opening  through  the 
valve  shell,  g  the  passage  into  the  ignition  chamber. 

This  igniter  is  based  upon  a  new  principle.  The  igniting 
jet  of  combustible  mixture  is  caused  to  rotate  in  the  circular 
chamber  r  in  the  piston,  into  which  it  enters  through  a  passage 
tangentially  placed.  This  forms  a  vortex  of  flame,  which  is 
positive  in  its  action  and  simple.  The  piston  valve  is  made  of 
steel,  and  is  hardened  and  ground  to  size.  It  moves  in  a 
reamed  hole  in  the  case,  being  so  loosely  fitted  as  to  drop  of  its 


io6 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


own  weight,  and  yet  making  a  gas-tight  joint.     Since  the  valve 
is  perfectly  balanced  as  to  gas  pressure,  it  moves  without  fric- 


FlG.  33.— THE  TUBE  IGNITER. 


IGNITERS   AND    EXPLODERS. 


107- 


tion,  and  therefore  requires  a  very  small  quantity  of  oil — just 
sufficient  to  prevent  it  becoming-  dry.  The  valve  is  made  long, 
and  the  lower  part  has  a  bearing  in  that  part  of  the  case  kept 
cool  by  a  water-jacket.  As  oil  is  only  applied  to  the  lower  endr 


FIG.  34.— SLIDE  IGNITER. 

very  little  can  work  up  to  the  hot  end  where  the  igniter  is 
heated ;  hence  the  formation  of  gummy  oil  is  prevented,  and 
the  valve  seldom  needs  cleaning.  In  actual  use  it  has  been 
found  that  the  case  and  upper  end  of  the  valve  never  come  into 
metallic  contact,  as,  on  account  of  the  looseness  of  fit  at  that 
point,  a  scale  of  hard  carbon  is  formed  over  the  surface  of  each, 
which  protects  them  from  abrasion.  The  valve  is  positively- 
operated  by  an  eccentric  on  the  shaft. 


io8 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


The  tube  igniter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33,  has  taken  a  wide 
range  of  usefulness  and  is  well  adapted  to  compression  engines. 
As  originally  made,  there  is  a  deviation  in  the  time  of  ignition 
from  the  uncertain  condition  of  the  explosive  mixture  and  va- 


FIG.  35.— TUBE  IGNITER. 

liable  heat  of  the  tube.  The  adjustment  of  the  length  of  the 
tube  and  position  of  the  heating  flame,  so  that  ignition  will 
take  place  at  the  maximum  compression  or  end  of  the  com- 
pression stroke,  is  a  somewhat  delicate  matter,  but  has  been 
found  by  experiment  for  the  different  designs  of  gas  engines. 

The  degree  of  compression  to  just  carry  the  fresh  gas  and 
.air  mixture  to  meet  the  firing  temperature  of  the  tube  by  push- 
ing the  products  of  the  previous  combustion  before  it,  together 


IGNITERS  AND   EXPLODERS. 


IOO/ 


with  the  adjustment  of  the  Bunsen  jet  to  a  proper  position  in 
regard  to  the  length  of  the  tube,  is  a  puzzling  problem  that 
has  to  be  worked  out  experimentally  for  each  style  of  engine. 
in  Fig.  34  is  shown  the  form  of  slide  igniters  as  used  on. 


FlO.  36.— FRONT  VIEW. 

European  engines  using  both  tube  and  slide.  This  form  acts- 
as  a  time  igniter,  which  regulates  the  time  of  ignition  by 
the  movement  of  the  slide-valve  or  inlet  piston,  which  opens- 
communication  with  the  hot  tube  through  the  inner  tube  by 
compression — the  small  vent  tube  and  cock  allowing  of  a  free 
blowout  of  the  igniting  tube  when  accumulation  of  soot  take? 
place. 


no 


GAS,    GASOLINE  AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


In  this  plan  the  ignition  tube  is  short,  and  may  be  made  of 
platinum  or  porcelain. 

The  hot-tubs  igniter  (Figs.  35  and  36)  shows  two  views  of 
an  ignition  tube  used  on  the  Robey  engines,  which  is  adjust- 
able for  the  position  of  the  igniting  surface  of  the  tube  as  well 
as  for  the  position  of  the  Bunsen  burner,  A  being  the  combus- 
tion chamber,  B  the  igniter  passage,  C  the  Bunsen  burner  piv- 
oted to  the  chimney  frame  at  D,  which  allows  the  burner  to  be 
tilted  slightly  to  regulate  the  distribution  of  the  flame  around 
the  tube. 

The  set- screw  in  the  chimney  socket  allows  of  a  ready  ad- 
justment of  the  position  of  the  chimney  and  burner  for  the 
time  of  ignition. 

PRIMARY    IGNITION    BATTERIES. 

The  Edison  Primary  Battery,  formerly  known  as  the  Edison- 

Lalande  battery,  and  exclusive- 
ly made  by  the  Edison  Manu- 
facturing Company,  of  New 
York,  Chicago,  and  Orange, 
N.  J.,  is  now  the  leading  type 
for  efficiency  and  lasting  quality 
for  primary  battery  ignition  for 
all  types  of  explosive  motors. 
The  batteries  are  made  in  vary- 
ing sizes  to  meet  the  require- 
ments for  stationary,  portable, 
launch  and  automobile  services. 
In  the  construction  of  these  bat- 
teries, a  double  zinc  plate  forms 
the  negative  element  and  a  sin- 
FIG.  37.— TYPE  RR,  7#xio^".  gle  plate  of  compressed  oxide 

of    copper    forms   the   positive 

element  of  the  battery.     The  fluid  is  a  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
which  is  sealed  by  a  layer  of  paraffine  oil  to  prevent  evapora- 


PRIMARY   IGNITION   BATTERIES. 


Ill 


tion  and  creeping  of  the  solution. 
The  plates  are  all  suspended  from 
the  cover  of  the  battery,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  37,  which  is  the  largest  (or  R  R) 
size  contained  in  a  porcelain  jar,  of 
which  five  cells,  having  a  capacity  of 
300  ampere  hours,  is  the  usual  outfit 
of  a  large  motor  plant. 

For  launch  motors,  the  size  V  is 
in  general  use,  having  a  liquid-tight 
cell  of  enamelled  steeJ,  which  will 
stand  hard  usage,  and  of  which  six 
cells  are  sufficient  for  single  or  double 


FIG  38.— TYPE  v,  5|4fx8". 


FlG.   38A. TYPE  Z, 


cylinder  two-cycle  or  four-cycle  motors. 
On  three  or  four-cylinder  motors  two 
batteries  of  six  cells  each  are  recom- 
mended, which  have  a  capacity  of  150 
ampere  hours  each. 

For  automobile  work,  the  size  Z  is  re- 
commended for  its  compact  size  and  less 
liability  to  splashing  from  the  vibration  of 
the  vehicle.  Their  capacity  is  100  ampere 
hours,  and  from  6  to  7  cells  are  used  for 
spark  coil  ignition.  The  cell  is  in  a  liquid 
tight  enamelled  steel  jar. 
These  various  types  of  Edison  primary  batteries  have  the 

smallest   resistance  and  the  most  lasting 

capacity  of  any  primary  battery  in  use. 
The  Edison  spark  coil  (Fig.  386)  is  the 

result  of  large  experience  in  an   effort  to 

produce  the  largest   spark   from  the  least 

battery  current.    Its  short  length  and  large 

number  of  wire  turns  make  the  magnetic 

changes  instantaneous,  producing  a  hot  and  powerful  spark,  so 

necessary  in  high  speed  motors. 


FIG.  388. — EDISON 
SPARK  COIL. 


112  GAS,    GASOLINE  AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

Several  forms  of  internal  circuit-breakers  have  been 
devised,  in  which  is  represented  a  reciprocating  rod  which 
may  be  operated  by  a  connecting  rod  with  a  cam  The  msuia- 
tion  is  made  within  a  sliding  tube,  which  allows  of  considerable 
motion  in  order  to  allow  the  contact  piece  to  slip  off  suddenly 
from  the  stud  which  is  fixed  in  the  cylinder  head. 

In  Fig.  39  is  represented  a  similar  device,  in  which  the  in- 
sulated rod  rotates  by  an  outside  gear  driven  from  the  valve 


FIG.  39.— ROTATING   SPARK-BRAKE. 

shaft.  The  rotating  spindle  carries  the  insulated  rod  and 
break-piece  eccentrically,  so  that  its  contact  and  break  can  be 
accurately  regulated  by  rotating  the  position  of  the  teeth  of 
the  gears. 

The  sparking  coil  used  with  this  form  of  igniter  is  shown 
in  Fig.  40.  It  consists  of  a  bundle  of  iron  wire,  insulated  and 
wrapped  with  insulated  copper  wire.  It  is  a  simpler  device 
than  the  double  or  Ruhmkorff  coil,  but  will  not  project  a  strong 
spark  or  at  a  great  distance  between  the  electrodes,  as  may.be 
obtained  from  a  Ruhmkorff  coil — the  breaking  device  being 
necessary  in  either  case. 

In  Fig.  41  is  represented  the  Pennington  double  igniter,  in 
which  the  breaker  is  a  loop  piece  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
piston.  The  contact  finger  swings  on  a  joint  with  a  spring 
that  keeps  it  in  a  straight  line  with  the  insulated  rod.  As  the. 


IGNITERS   AND   EXPLODERS. 


piston  nears  the  end  of  its  stroke,  the  loop  pushes  the  finger 
over  and  breaks  the  contact  at  the  end  of  the  stroke ;  and  as  the 
piston  recedes,  the  finger,  having  sprung  back  in  line  with  the 
insulated  rod,  is  caught  by  the  loop,  and  a  second  break  spark 


FIG.  40.— SPARKING  COIL. 


PlG.  41.— THE  DOUBLE  SPARK  DEVICE. 


takes  place.  The  time  of  sparking  can  be  varied  by  the  length 
of  the  finger  and  by  adjusting  the  position  of  the  insulated 
plunger. 

Ignition  by  direct  current  from  a  small  dynamo  with  a  cur- 
rent-breaker operated  by  the  cam  shaft  is  in  favor  with  many 
gas-engine  builders. 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

A  current-breaker  used  on  the  Priestman  engine  is  shown 
in  Fig.  42,  where  an  arm  kept  in  position  by  a  spring  or 
weighted  lever  is  made  to  touch  a  spud  revolving  on  the  sec- 


FlG.  42.— THE  CURRENT-BREAKER. 

ondary  shaft.    A  movable  sleeve  on  the  shaft  is  set  back  or  for- 
ward for  time  adjustment  of  the  contact  break. 


PIG.  43.— ROCKING  SHAFT  SPARKER. 

Fig.  43  represents  the  sparking  device  used  by  the  Union 
Gas  Engine  Company  of  San  Francisco,  and  consists  of  a  rock- 
ing shaft  carrying  a  flattened  pin,  K,  on  the  end  inside  of  the 


IGNITERS   AND    EXPLODERS. 


firing  chamber,  which  by  its  rocking  motion  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  an  insulated  spring,  S.  The  spring-contact  piece, 
bearing  against  and  rubbing  the  rocking  pin,  secures  perfect 
freedom  of  current  circuit  while  in  contact. 


FIG.  44. —THE  OPERATING  DEVICE. 


The  operating  device  is  shown  in  Fig.  44,  where  the  push 
rod  R,  connecting  with  an  arm  moved  by  a  cam  on  the  second- 


FlO.  45.— THE  PERMANENT  FIELD  GENERATOR. 

ary  shaft,  is  adjusted  to  make  the  break  contact  at  the  required 
moment ;  while  the  contact  spring  at  M  relieves  the  battery 
circuit  during  the  time  of  three  cycles. 

Ignition  from  the  current  of  a  small  dynamo  attached  to  the 
engine  and  driven  at  the  proper  speed  from  the  engine  shaft  is 


1 10  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

in  successful  use  and  does  away  with  the  care  of  a  battery. 
This  requires  no  induction  coil,  the  spark  being  made  directly 
through  the  break  device  and  electrodes. 

Fig.  45  represents  a  generator  used  on  the  Sumner  gas  and 
gasoline  engines.  The  spark  is  produced  by  a  plunger  contact 
with  the  commutator  operated  from  a  cam  on  the  secondary 
shaft. 

IGNITING  TIMING  VALVES. 

The  value  of  an  exact  time  of  ignition  for  producing  uni- 
formity of  speed  in  explosive  engines  is  attested  by  the  ex- 


FlG.  46.— TIMING  VALVE. 

haustive  experiments  of  years  with  the  many  devices  made  for 
the  ordinary  tube  igniters,  and  the  final  recourse  to  electric 


IGNITERS   AND    EXPLODERS. 


ignition.  A  satisfactory  result  has  been  obtained  in  several 
designs  for  operating  a  valve  at  the  mouth  of  the  ignition  tube 
that  admits  the  compressed  charge  to  the  ignition  tube  at  an 
exact  point  in  the  piston  stroke. 

In  Fig.  46  is  illustrated  a  timing  valve  used  on  the  Robey 


MqiU-^ 


FIG.  47.— TIMING  VALVE  AND  STARTER. 

engine,  in  which  A  is  the  combustion  chamber ;  B  the  passage 
leading  to  the  hot  tube,  a  double-seated  valve  and  spindle  held 
to  its  front  seat  by  the  spring  D ;  E  a  lever  operated  from  the 
cam  shaft;  F  adjusting  spool  with  set  nuts.  In  action  the 
valve  is  opened  at  or  about  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke 
and  kept  open  during  the  exhaust  stroke,  thus  clearing  the  ig- 
nition tube  uniformly  and  insuring  exact  time  of  ignition. 

In  Fig.  47  is  illustrated  a  combined  timing- valve  igniter 
and  starter,  as  used  on  the  Stockport  engines.  In  this  ar- 
rangement a  double  tube  is  used,  with  an  annular  space  be- 
tween the  inner  tube  and  the  hot  tube,  through  which  the 
products  of  combustion  may  be  blown  out,  followed  by  the 


Il8  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

explosive  mixture,  into  the  hot  tube,  by  compressing  the  timing 
valve  and  the  starting  valve  at  the  same  moment.  Referring 
to  the  cut,  F  is  the  timing  valve,  operated  by  the  lever  D ;  A 
the  starting-valve,  with  its  waste  outlet  at  V ;  H  is  a  mantle  to 
draw  the  flame  closer  to  the  igniting  tube. 

There  are  many  variations  in  form  and  attachments  for 
timing  valves  in  use  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  They 
are  fast  coming  into  favor  for  hot-tube  igniters  for  the  larger 
gas  and  gasoline  engines. 

HOT    TUBE    IGNITERS. 

Much  of  the  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  constant  and  uniform 
explosive  effect  from  the  hot  tubes  used  in  the  early  or  experi- 
mental period  of  the  explosive  motor  was  due  to  the  inability 
to  know  or  see  what  was  the  exact  condition  of  the  progress  of 
combustion  which  was  taking  place  within  the  tube  and  passage 
to  the  combustion  chamber  of  the  cylinder. 

The  want  of  a  durable  and  inexpensive  material  for  the 
ignition  tubes  was  an  unsatisfactory  experience  in  the  early  days 
of  the  explosive  motor.  The  use  of  iron,  with  its  uncertain  and 
perishable  nature,  under  the  intermittent  high  pressure  and  at 
the  continual  high  temperature  of  the  Bunsen  burner,  oxidized 
the  tubes  on  the  outside,  making  them  thin,  so  as  to  burst  in  a 
month,  a  week,  or  a  day;  but  only  occasionally  a  tube  would  last 
a  month,  although  by  the  use  of  extra  strong  iron  pipe  their  life 
has  somewhat  lengthened.  One  of  the  principal  causes  for  the 
short  life  of  the  iron  tube  may  be  found  in  the  management  of 
the  Bunsen  burner.  A  tube  of  iron  or  any  other  metal  should 
not  be  used  at  a  white  heat  even  at  any  one  spot.  A  uniform 
band  at  a  full  red  heat  all  around  the  central  or  other  part  of  the 
tube  suitable  for  timing  the  ignition  is  the  most  desirable 
temperature  for  ignition,  and  for  the  lasting  quality  of  the  tube. 
In  the  construction  and  setting  of  the  Bunsen  burners,  the  point 
of  greatest  heat  in  the  flame  is  too  often  made  to  impinge 
directly  against  the  tube,  heating  it  to  a  white  heat  at  one  spot. 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS.  ng 

This  causes  a  change  in  its  molecular  condition,  weakening  it 
by  crystallization  and  oxidation,  when,  in  a  short  time,  the  con- 
stantly repeated  hammering  of  the  explosions  bursts  the  weak- 
ened metal. 

The  use  of  porcelain  tubes  are  free  from  the  oxidizing 
properties  of  metals,  but  require  considerable  care  in  fastening 
them  in  place.  When  once  properly  set  their  wear  is  imper- 
ceptible, and  if  not  broken  by  accident,  they  seem  to  stand  the 
pressure  well  and  have  a  life  of  a  year  or  more  at  the  trifling 
cost  of  from  20  to  30  cents  for  the  sizes  ordinarily  used,  and  in 
quantity  at  a  much  lower  price. 

The  usual  lengths  of  porcelain  tubes  as  made  by  the 
R.  Thomas  &  Sons  Co. ,  East  Liverpool,  O. ,  are  6,  8,  i  o,  and  1 2 
inches  in  length.  Their  agent,  Mr.  J.  E.  Way,  39  Cortlandt 
Street,  New  York,  will  furnish  the  porcelain  tubes  in  any  desired 
size,  length,  and  quantity.  Pass  &  Seymour,  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
also  manufacture  porcelain  tubes  for  explosive  engines. 

The  best  metallic  tubes  now  on  the  market  are  made  from 
the  nickel  alloy  rods  imported  from  the  Westf  iilisches  Nickel walzer 
in  Swerte,  Germany.  The  rods  are  furnished  in  about  6  foot 
lengths,  of  sizes  |,  J,  T\,  |,  and  j-J-  inch  diameter.  Herman  Boker 
&  Co.,  1 01  Duane  Street,  New  York,  are  the  United  States 
agents.  They  keep  the  rods  in  stock  at  90  cents  per  pound,  and 
also  furnish  the  finished  tubes  of  sizes  to  order. 

This  metal  is  now  largely  in  use  by  the  leading  gas-engine 
builders  in  the  United  States,  and  its  lasting  quality  has  been 
amply  tested  by  more  than  a  year's  wear  and  in  some  cases  a 
two  years'  wear  for  a  single  tube.  The  only  trouble  or  shorten- 
ing of  the  running  time  of  the  nickel  alloy  tubes  has  been  from 
excessive  heating  and  from  sulphurous  gas,  such  as  the  unpurified 
producer  gas  and  in  a  few  instances  from  sulphurous  natural  gas, 
against  which  the  porcelain  tubes  seem  to  be  proof.  The  drilling-  of 
the  nickel  alloy  tubes  requires  considerable  care  in  order  to  keep 
the  drill  centered  in  the  rod,  which  is  best  done  by  revolving  the 
rod  in  a  dead-rest  and  feeding  the  drill  by  the  back  center.  Drills 


120 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

Use  milk  for  lubricating  the 


should  be  hard  and  kept  sharp, 
drill. 

The  running  out  of  the  drill  will  make  a  thin  side  to  the 
tube,  which  will  be  liable  to  overheat,  and  by  expansion  and 
contraction,  due  to  unequal  temperature,  will  cause  the  thin 
side  to  bulge  and  finally  rupture. 


FlG.    47A. — PORCELAIN  TUBE  SETTING. 

Platinum  tubes  have  been  used  to  considerable  extent  in 
Germany  and  a  few  in  the  United  States ;  their  cost  will  proba- 
bly send  them  out  of  use  in  view  of  the  lasting  quality  and 
cheapness  of  the  nickel  alloy  and  porcelain  tubes. 

In  Fig.  47  A  is  shown  one  of  several  methods  for  setting  the 
porcelain  tube  in  a  socket  to  be  screwed  into  the  cylinder. 

The  packing  may  be  asbestos  washers,  dry  or  moistened  with 
wet  clay. 


IGNITERS   AND    EXPLODERS.  121 

The  application  of  a  new  device  in  hot-tube  ignition  as  used 
on  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  engines,  by  which  a  short  and  plain  porce- 
lain or  lava  tube,  open  at  both  ends  and  set  between  sockets  with 
asbestos  packing,  is  a  marked  progress  in  simplifying  the  care 
and  adjustment  of  tubes  and  time  of  firing. 

A  reinforcement  of  the  combustion  passage  by  an  iron  pipe 
extension  enlarges  the  power  of  the  small  hot  tube  by  prolong- 
ing the  burning  of  the  firing  charge,  and  thus  making  a  short 
tube  available  to  meet  the  requirement  for  timing  adjustment. 
Such  tubes  should  last  indefinitely;  they  are  cheap,  quickly 
changed,  and  easily  cleaned. 

ELECTRIC    IGNITION    PLUGS. 

The  ignition  of  the  charge  has  undergone  much  change  in  the 
past  five  years  in  the  various  appliances  and  trials  which  have 
resulted  in  placing  the  electric  jump  spark  in  the  lead  for  relia- 
bility and  certainty  of  action.  The  form  of  the  plug  containing 
the  electrodes  has  undergone  many  changes  in  order  to  eliminate 
the  short  circuit  propensities  of  these  simple  devices  by  the  car- 
bonizing of  the  insulating  surfaces  and  to  obtain  adjustment  to 
meet  the  abrading  propensities  of  the  electric  spark.  In  Fig. 
47  B  we  give  a  section  of  an  ignition  plug  of  French  design  much 


FlG.    47B. — FRENCH   IGNITION   PLUG. 

in  use  on  automobile  motors.  The  plug  and  nut  may  be  made 
of  hard  brass  with  an  extension  piece  with  an  electrode  of  plati- 
num. The  spindle  of  copper  with  a  fixed  collar  for  adjustment 
and  terminating  in  a  platinum  blunt  point  electrode.  The  in- 
sulation is  porcelain  or  of  lava  in  two  pieces  with  a  mica  disk 
between,  thick  enough  to  allow  of  closing  the  electrodes  by 


122 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


splitting  off  thin  slices  from  the  mica  disk.  The  lava  insulator 
can  now  be  obtained  from  the  makers,  the  D.  M.  Steward  Manu- 
facturing Company,  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

In  Fig.  47  c  is  illustrated  an  ignition  plug,  the  design  of  Mr. 


FlG.    47C. — MAXWELL  IGNITION   PLUG. 

Harry  B.  Maxwell,  Rome,  N.  Y.,  in  which  the  terminals  are 
blunt  and  spherical,  which  produce  a  more  brilliant  spark  than 
plugs  with  small  or  thin  terminals.  In  this  design  it  is  noted  that 
the  lava  or  porcelain  insulating  tube  extends  a  distance  beyond 


SPARK  COIL 


FlG.    47E. — HAMMER   SPARK   IGNITER. 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS. 


123- 


the  iron  plug  that  greatly  increases  the  insulating  surface  and 
distance  between  the  metallic  parts  of  the  plug.  The  extension 
finger  electrode  may  be  made  of  steel  or  copper  with  a  cap  of 
nickel  or  platinum  brazed  on.  The  center  rod  electrode  with  a 
nickel  or  platinum  cap  may  fit  loosely  in  the  insulating  tube  with 
the  shoulder  packed  with  asbestos.  Asbestos  also  makes  a  good 
and  elastic  packing  for  the  shoulders  of  the  lava  or  porcelain 
tube.  The  spring  and  nuts  hold  the  central  electrode  firmly  to- 
its  seat  and  allow  for  differential  expansion.  In  Fig.  47E  we 
illustrate  a  simple  and  easily  made  hammer  spark  plug  which 
may  be  inserted  through  the  cylinder  head  with  a  flange  joint, 
fixed  with  two  studs  or  tap  bolts.  A  spring  at  s  holds  the 
shoulder  of  the  terminal  a  close  to  the  plug  P  so  that  the  shaft 
b  may  have  free  motion  in  the  plug,  d  is  the  outside  arm  rocked 
by  the  cam  rod. 

The  fixed  terminal  is  insulated  by  a  lava  sleeve  which  may  be 


FlG.    47D. — IGNITION   PLUG   AND   VALVE   POSITION. 

in  two  parts  with  asbestos  washers  to  prevent  breaking  of  the 
lava  shoulders. 

The  contact  surfaces  x  and  y,  shown  in  the  front  view  of  the 
plug,  should  be  made  of  platinum,  brazed  to  the  terminals.  The 
method  of  connecting  with  the  battery  and  spark  coil  is  dis- 
tinctly shown  in  the  cut. 

A  sparking  plug  with  an  extended  insulation  cylinder  with 


124 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


a  crossed  wire  electrode  has  been  the  subject  of  a  recent  patent, 
in  which  a  double  loop  of  two  U-shaped  platinum  wires  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles  at  the  sparking  distance  from  the  in- 
sulated electrode,  is  used  in  connection  with  the  extended  in- 
sulation plug,  and  so  placed  that  the  inlet  charge  sweeps  across 
the  wires  and  keeps  them  cool  enough  to  prevent  premature 
firing.  The  plug  and  valve  positions  are  shown  in  Fig.  470. 

In  Figs.  47F  and  470  we  illustrate  the  details  of  the  mercurial 
sparker  of  Mr.  J.  V.  Rice,  Jr.,  Edgewater  Park,  N.  J.     It  is  well 


TIMING  PLUNGER 


WATER  IN- 
FlG.    4JF. — RICE    SPARKER. 


known  that  the  break  of  contact  with  mercury  produces  a  brilliant 
spark  from  the  electric  current,  or  what  is  called  in  gas  engine 
parlance  a  "fat  spark.''  This  idea  has  been  found  in  practice  to 
meet  some  of  the  faults  of  the  hammer  break  devices  and  seems 
to  insure  a  constant  service  in  this  important  adjunct  in  explosive 
motor  running. 

The  deep  cup  of  mercury  is  enclosed  in  a  small  water  chamber 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS. 


125 


forming  part  of  the  cooling  circulation  of  the  cylinder,  and  make- 
and-break  contact  is  made  by  the  movement  of  an  insulated 
spindle  operated  direct  from  a  cam  in  a  two-cycle  engine  or  the 
reducing  shaft  in  a  four-cycle  type. 

The  timing  is  regulated  by  screwing  the  spindle  up  or  down, 
as  shown  in  the  cuts.  The  connections  with  a  sparking  coil  and 
battery,  or  with  a  dynamo,  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as  with 
Other  break-contact  sparking  devices. 

The  sparker  has  been  in  use  for  many  months  on  a  gasoline 


TO  BATTERy 

FlG.    47G. — RICE   VALVE    GEAR. 

engine  driving  a  machine  shop  motive  plant,  a  launch  and  a 
high-speed  tricycle,  without  misfires  except  by  control. 

The  evaporation  of  mercury  from  the-  cell  is  exceptionally 
small  and  does  not  spill  by  the  jar  of  the  motor.  The  amount  of 
mercury  actually  lost  in  a  year's  run  of  a  12-H.p.  motor  does 
not  exceed  35  cents  in  cost.  High  speed,  which  sometimes  inter- 
feres with  the  perfect  operation  of  igniters,  in  a  test  of  this 
device  by  the  writer,  has  been  found  to  give  a  perfect  ignition  at 
all  speeds  up  to  more  than  2,300  revolutions  per  minute. 

A  simple  primary  sparking  coil  may  be  made  with  a  core  of 
iron  wire  (No.  16)  10  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diameter. 
Fasten  heads  for  the  spool  on  this,  and  cover  the  core  with  a 


126 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   LNGINES. 


few  turns  of  brown  paper.  Wind  No.  14  single  cotton-covered 
magnet  wire  on  this  to  a  depth  of  about  ^  inch,  insulating  each 
layer  from  the  next  by  a  layer  of  paper.  Give  each  layer  a  coat 
of  shellac  also.  The  coil  is  used  in  series  with  a  battery,  and  the 
.spark  is  obtained  when  the  circuit  is  broken.  With  six  or  eight 
.strong  cells  a  thick  spark  will  be  given.  This  coil  is  illustrated 
m  Fig.  40,  only  instead  of  four  windings  make  six  to  eight 
windings. 

THE    JUMP    SPARK    COIL. 

For  a  better  understanding  of  the  detail  of  construction  of  an 
induction  coil  of  suitable  size  for  the  ignition  of  the  explosive 
charge  of  a  gas,  gasoline  or  oil  engine.  We  therefore  illustrate 
in  Fig.  47  H  the  details  of  such  a  coil  without  a  vibrator,  and  in 


FlG.   47H. — JUMP  SPARK  COIL. 

Fig.  47  i  the  same  coil  with  'the  vibrator.  A  coil  of  the  size  here 
given  and  detailed  should  give  a  full  and  hot  spark  for  any  or- 
dinary engine  across  a  1-16  to  3-32-inch  space  between  the  elec- 
trodes. Its  full-length  spark  should  be  equal  to  a  jump  of  from 
y2  to  ^  of  an  inch  between  wire  terminals.  The  iron  core  H  H 
is  made  up  of  annealed  wire,  No.  20  wire  gauge,  5 ^4.  inches  long, 
as  many  pieces  as  can  be  pushed  into  a  ^-inch  paper  tube, 
3l/2  inches  long,  made  by  wrapping  paper  on  a  $/§  rod  with 
shellac  varnish  between  the  layers,  say,  a  half-dozen  layers,  and 
shellac  the  outside.  Push  onto  each  end  of  the  paper  tube  a 
.square  wooden  flange,  ]/2  inch  thick,  4  inches  diameter,  even 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS. 


127 


with  the  end  of  the  paper  tube  and  square  with  it.  Fasten  the 
wood  ends  strongly  with  shellac  and  shellac  their  entire  surface. 

This  will  then  make  a  spool  4^2  inches  long  for  winding  the 
coils.  Bore  a  hole  in  one  of  the  heads  close  to  the  paper  tube  to 
pass  one  end  of  the  primary  coil  through  and  another  a  little 
further  around  to  receive  the  other  end.  Wind  on  the  spool  two 
layers  of  No.  16  double  cotton  or  silk-covered  copper  wire  with 
the  ends  passed  through  the  holes  in  the  spool  flange.  Give  the 
coil  a  coat  of  shellac  varnish  and  dry.  Then  wrap  the  primary 
coil  with  three  thicknesses  of  paper  with  shellac  varnish  between 
each  wrapping  with  a  perfect  closure  at  the  flanges  and  over  the 
exit  wires  of  the  primary.  Dry  and  shellac  the  outside. 

The  secondary  coil  may  be  made  of  8  ounces  of  double  silk- 


FlG.    47  I. — JUMP   SPARK   COIL  WITH   VIBRATOR. 


covered  copper  wire,  No.  36  gauge ;  commencing  by  passing  one 
end  through  the  hole  in  the  opposite  flange  from  "the  primary 
terminals  and  winding  closely  but  not  tight,  one  layer,  shellac 
and  cover  with  two  layers  of  paper,  shellacked,  and  a  third  layer 
at  each  end  to  make  a  sure  closure  against  a  spark  passing  across 
the  layers  at  the  ends  of  the  spool.  Continue  this  back  and  for- 
ward method  of  winding  for  the  whole  amount  of  wire,  covering 
each  layer  as  the  first,  and  terminate  through  a  hole  in  spool 
flange  at  the  same  end  as  it  commenced.  This  should  not  be  a 
hurried  job;  give  each  layer  time  to  dry.  The  perfection  of  the 
whole  coil  depends  upon  its  thorough  insulation,  especially  at  the 


128  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

ends  of  the  layers  where  the  difference  in  potential  is  greatest 
with  a  liability  of  sparking  from  layer  to  layer  of  the  coil  and  the 
ruin  of  the  work. 

Such  a  coil  may  be  used  without  a  vibrator,  and  referring  to 
Fig.  4711,  in  which  the  leading  principles  of  construction  are 
shown,  P  P  M  M  are  the  primary  binding  posts.  The  upper 
posts  P  and  P  are  connected  through  the  battery  and  switch. 
The  lower  posts,  M  and  M  are  connected  through  the  breaker  on 
the  reducing  gear  from  the  crank  shaft  represented  at  N  F  D  G. 
The  upper  post,  P  and  the  lower  post  M  are  directly  connected, 
making  a  complete  primary  circuit  from  the  battery  A  through 
the  switch  J  and  post  P  around  the  core  and  post  M  to  the 
breaker  at  D  and  through  the  lower  post  M  and  across  by  the 
upper  post  P  to  the  battery.  The  condenser  L  is  composed  of 
strips  of  tinfoil  separated  by  paraffined  paper  in  series  and  are 
connected  at  M  M  as  a  shunt  across  the  contact  breaker  for  the 
purpose  of  absorbing  an  extra  current  induced  in  the  primary 
coil  by  the  break  of  the  circuit,  which  would  tend  to  prolong  the 
magnetization  of  the  core  beyond  the  desired  limit  in  a  high- 
speed engine. 

The  condenser  may  be  made  of  a  size  to  be  enclosed  in  the 
hollow  base  upon  which  the  coil  is  to  be  fixed,  and  made,  up  of 
about  71  sheets  of  plain  uncalendered  writing  paper,  say  5  by 
8  inches,  dipped  in  melted  paraffine  or  varnished  with  shellac  on 
each  side ;  interleaved  with  70  sheets  of  tinfoil,  cut  4  by  7  inches 
with  an  ear  at  one  corner  of  each  sheet  to  project  beyond  the 
paper  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  alternate  sheets  to  be  connected 
together  on  opposite  corners.  The  pile  may  then  be  clamped  to- 
gether with  two  pieces  of  board  well  shellacked.  The  ears  of 
each  set  of  35  sheets  may  then  be  pressed  together  and  clamped 
for  connecting  to  the  binding  posts  M  M.  Condensers  are  not 
absolutely  necessary  and  many  jump-spark  coils  are  in  use  with- 
out them.  The  theory  is  that  the  electro-magnetic  force  of  self- 
induction  in  the  primary,  which  is  principally  instrumental  in 
causing  the  spark  at  break  contact,  will  expend  most  of  its  energy 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS.  1 29 

in  charging  the  condenser,  causing  the  break  spark  of  the 
primary  to  be  less  and  the  current  to  become  zero  with  greater 
rapidity.  The  practical  effect  of  the  condenser  on  the  spark 
volume  of  the  secondary  is  very  great,  or  what  is  commonly 
called  a  fat  spark. 

The  vibrating  coil  Fig.  47  i  is  of  the  same  general  construction 
as  described  with  the  addition  of  a  spring  vibrator  shown  at  F  G. 
The  steel  spring  G  F  may  be  il/>  inches  in  length  and  y2  inch 
in  width,  fastened  to  a  post  at  F  and  fixed  to  a  small  armature 
of  soft  iron  at  G  with  a  platinum  or,  what  is  better,  an  alloy  cf 
platinum  and  iridium  contact  piece  at  E.  D  is  a  brass  post  with 
a  platinum  iridium  point  adjusting  screw,  and  connected  to  the 
breaker  N  and  to  the  condenser  K  L,  completing  the  primary 
circuit  through  the  post  F,  the  switch  J  and  the  breaker  B. 


S.       S. 


FlG.  47J. — THE  INDUCTION  COIL  CASE. 

The  office  of  the  vibrator  is  to  give  a  rapid  intermission  of 
the  primary  current  while  the  commutator  bar  C  is  in  contact 
with  the  spring  B.  By  this  means  the  induced  secondary  cur- 
rent also  becomes  intermittent  and  so  secures  a  succession  of 
sparks  at  the  electrodes  that  insures  a  positive  ignition. 

The  complete  induction  coil  may  then  be  enclosed  in  a  box  as 
shown  in  Fig.  47  j,  which  illustrates  a  jump-spark  ignition 
apparatus  as  made  and  sold  by  C.  F.  Splitdorf,  25  Vandewater 
Street,  New  York  City,  who  also  makes  an  up-to-date  sparking 
Plug- 


130 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


In  Fig.  47  K  is  illustrated  an  ignition  battery  plant,  in  which 
the  batteries  may  be  from  three  to  four  in  series,  connecting  with 
the  binding  post  p  of  the  primary  winding  of  the  induction  coil 
T  and  continued  through  the  other  binding  post  pl  to  the  breaker 
at  k,  which  is  operated  by  a  break  contact  arm  or  cam  on  the  re- 
ducing gear  or  shaft. 

The  secondary  winding  of  the  induction  coil  is  connected  to 
the  ignition  plug  P  by  the  wires  e  e  and  continued  through 
separate  insulating  sleeves,  i  i,  terminating  in  the  platinum  points 
or  preferably  small  knobs,  c  c.  The  distance  apart  of  these  elec-- 
trodes  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  current. 
With  an  induction  coil  and  battery  of  size  to  produce  a  half-inch 


FlG.    47K. — ELECTRIC  IGNITER. 

open  jump  spark,  one-sixteenth  to  three-thirty-seconds  of  an 
inch  should  be  the  limit.  With  ^  to  i  inch  open  jump  spark 
the  limit  may  be  one-eighth  inch  between  the  electrodes.  The 
primary  circuit  is  made  and  broken  by  the  passage  of  the  contact 
piece  k,  between  the  spring  clips  x  x,  at  the  moment  required 
for  firing  the  charge. 

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  IGNITION. 

The  permanent  field  dynamo  or  magneto  for  producing  the 
ignition  current  are  coming  into  favor  and  are  made  in  a  variety 
of  styles.  They  have  a  drum  armature,  enclosed  so  as  to  be 
proof '  against  dirt,  oil  and  moisture.  They  can  be  run  by  belt  or 
by  contact  with  the  fly-wheel  with  a  band  of  rubber  stretched 
tightly  and  cemented  upon  the  dynamo  pulley.  They  are  made 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS. 


in  several  styles  and  are  a  favorite  for  marine  and  vehicle  gaso- 
line engines. 

In  Fig.  47M  is  represented  the  horizontal  magneto  as  made 
by  the  Holtzer-Cabot  Electric  Company,  Boston,  Mass.  It  has 
a  belt  or  wheel  contact  tightening  device  on  a  permanent  plat- 
form. It  is  their  No.  2  or  automobile  size, 
which  is  also  best  suited  for  launches.  The 
sparking  device  for  which  they  are  specially 
designed  is  the  break  or  wipe  spark.  This 
magneto  igniter,  while  having  an  armature 
of  the  drum  type  similar  to  that  used  in  di- 
rect-current dynamos,  has  permanent  mag- 
net fields,  so  that  not  only  is  no  current 
wasted  to  energize  them,  but  the  armature 
can  be  run  in  either  direction  and  a  wider 

range  of  speed  employed  without  danger  of  a  "burn-out,"  while 
a  good  hot  spark  can  always  be  depended  upon. 

The  fields  of  this  machine  are  composed  of  steel,  permanent 
magnet,  and  unless   subject  to  abnormal  conditions  will  retain 


FlG.   47L. — IGNITION 
DYNAMO. 


FlG.    47M. — HORIZONTAL    MAGNETO. 

their  strength  indefinitely.  The  0-shaped  bars  shp(uld  never  be 
removed  from  the  fields  without  substituting  an  iron  keeper 
across  their  prongs,  and  this  same  precaution  should  be  taken 
before  attempting  to  withdraw  the  armature. 

Either  carbon  or  woven  wire  brushes  may  be  used ;  the  copper 


132 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL  ENGINES. 


brush  should  be  soaked  in  oil  from  time  to  time  to  prevent  cutting 
the  commutator.  Carbon  brushes  will  not  cut  the  commutator, 
but  occasionally  may  become  glazed  and  fail  to  give  reliable  con- 
tact ;  when  this  occurs  their  ends  should  be  filed  off  to  a  new  sur- 
face, when  they  will  operate  as  well  as  new  brushes.  « 

Fig  47  o  represents  the  magneto  dynamo  of  the  Carlisle  & 
Finch  Company,  Cincinnati,  O. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  this  magneto  is  the  method  of  sup- 


FlG.    47N.— VERTICAL  MAGNETO. 

porting  it.  It  is  mounted  on  a  strong  pin  on  which  it  rocks. 
This  permits  of  the  "belt  being  tightened  if  it  becomes  loose,  and 
an  adjusting  screw  is  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  square 
base  or  pedestal  is  to  be  fastened  to  the  floor,  and  the  tightening 
screw  inserted  in  the  hole  on  the  side  toward  the  engine.  This 
will  allow  the  dynamo  to  be  pushed  away  from  the  engine,  so  as 
to  tighten  the  belt  as  it  becomes  loose. 

If  it  is  desired  to  run  the  magneto  by  a  friction  pulley,  a 
spring  may  be  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  magneto,  so  as  to 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS. 


133 


draw  it  toward  the  fly-wheel  of  the  engine.  In  this  case,  the 
tightening  screw  will  be  omitted.  Friction  pulleys  are  furnished. 

The  armature  is  completely  enclosed,  and  the  magneto  may  be 
sprinkled  with  water  without  damage. 

For  small  engines,  when  the  fly-wheel  can  be  turned  by  hand, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  battery  for  starting;  but  when  the 


FlG.    47  O.— VERTICAL   MAGNETO. 

engine  is  so  large  that  it  can  be  turned  but  slowly,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  6  or  8  cells  of  open-circuit  battery  for  furnishing  the 
initial  spark.  Any  good  type  of  Leclanche  battery  will  answer. 
Dry  batteries  may  be  used  if  the  magneto  is  to  be  used  on  an 
automobile  where  the  available  space  is  small. 

To  meet  the  wishes  of  those  who  have  individual  preferences 
for  the  dynamo  type  of  igniter,  and  to  meet  conditions  which  de- 
mand an  igniter  that  will  deliver  a  large  amount  of  energy  con- 
tinuously, as  for  instance  multiple  cylinder  engines,  the  Holtzer- 


134  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

Cabot  Electric  Company  have  brought  out  a  dynamo  type  of 
igniter  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  47  p.  This  new  igniter  will  work 
through  a  range  of  speed  from  1,000  R.P.M.  to  2,500  R.P.M.;  it 
may  be  used  to  advantage  in  automobile  work,  it  being  unneces- 
sary to  use  any  governor  whatever.  It  will  deliver  a  continuous 
output  of  50  watts  and  will  serve  under  the  most  severe  and 
exacting  conditions.  The  igniter  is  pivoted  on  a  sub-base  and 
the  belt  is  tightened  or  the  pressure  of  the  friction  pulley  regti- 


FlG.    47P. — DYNAMO   IGNITER. 

lated  by  means  of  two  butt-screws  which  rock  the  machine  for- 
ward or  backward  as  the  case  may  be. 

Fig.  47Q  represents  an  igniting  dynamo  with  belt  tightener, 
made  by  the  Carlisle  &  Finch  Company,  Cincinnati,  O.  This 
dynamo,  like  their  magneto,  is  made  to  swing  on  a  pin  support, 
in  order  to  tighten  the  belt,  or  to  permit  of  its  being  driven  by  a 
friction  pulley.  An  improvement  in  this  dynamo  is  the  means 
for  shifting  the  brushes  by  rotating  the  brass  cover  at  the  com- 
mutator end  a  few  degrees  in  either  direction  and  a  change  of 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS. 


135 


connections,    for   setting  the   dynamo   for   any    direction   of   the 
motor  fly-wheel. 

In  Fig.  47R  is  illustrated  the  break  spark  method  of  wiring  for 
motor  ignition  from  a  dynamo  either  of  the  magneto  type  or  the 
self-exciting  field-wound  type  as  before  described,  which  will  fur- 
nish sufficient  current  for  a  good  spark  at  the  low  speed  of  800  re- 
volutions per  minute ;  but  for  sure  ignition  at  normal  speed  of  the 


FlG.    47Q. — IGNITING   DYNAMO. 


motor,  should  run  at  a  speed  of  about  1,200  revolutions  per 
minute. 

The  usual  current  is  at  about  10  volts  and  2  amperes. 

When  an  igniter  is  used  in  connection  with  an  engine  having 
two  cylinders,  there  should  be  a  separate  spark  coil  employed 
for  each  cylinder. 


136 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


.Spark  Coll 
FlG.   47R. — DYNAMO  WIRING. 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS.  137 

•       POINTERS    ON    VALVES    AND    IGNITION. 

Although  the  general  designs  of  explosive  motors,  so  far  as 
their  power-moving  parts  are  concerned,  are  so  much  alike  that, 
excepting  their  ignition  devices,  any  explosive  motor  may  be 
made  interchangeable  or  readily  convertible  to  the  use  of  either 
of  the  explosive  materials  for  power,  for  each  requires  an  equal 
strength  in  all  the  parts  of  the  motor  as  well  as  an  equal  treat- 
ment in  the  regulation  of  cylinder  temperature. 

The  value  of  the  materials  of  explosive  power  has  been  as 
fully  discussed  under  the  head  of  "materials  of  power"  as  is  con- 
sistent with  our  present  knowledge  of  the  experimental  details 
in  regard  to  the  explosive  values  of  such  materials.  Their  study 
becomes  an  essential  feature  in  motor  design,  especially  in  regard 
to  cylinder  volume  to  meet  specified  power. 

The  details  of  valve  gear  may  be  made  variable  to  meet  the 
fancy  of  designers  or  their  judgment  of  fitness ;  but  there  are  a 
few  points  in  its  operating  principle  which  must  be  made  to 
meet  the  requirements  not  only  of  each  form ,  of  explosive  ele- 
ment to  be  used;  but  also  the  varied  values  of  gases  in  gas  en- 
gines from  acetylene  to  producer  gas  and  of  the  volatility  of  the 
variable  grades  of  gasoline,  kerosene  and  the  cruder  oils,  and 
which  dominate  the  sizes  and  relative  proportions  of  the  inlet  and 
exhaust  valves. 

The  forms  of  the  faces  and  seats  of  valves  seem  to  have  been 
varied  to  meet  the  fancy  of  designers  in  a  great  measure  and 
even  the  crudity  of  a  spindle  riveted  to  the  valve  disk  has  been 
used  and  published  as  a  desirable  makeshift.  The  flat-faced  valve 
is  also  in  use,  but  from  the  author's  experience,  is  unreliable  and 
makes  an  imperfect  seat  by  use.  Conical  seated  valves  with  faces 
at  from  thirty-five  to  forty-five  degrees  from  the  axis  of  the 
spindle  are  giving  good  service.  A  flatter  cone  of  from  fifty  to 
sixty  degrees  is  in  use  with  apparent  wearable  properties  and 
with  slightly  less  lift  for  its  full  area  than  with  the  deeper  seated 
valves. 

Spindle  valves  with  stems  one-fifth  to  one-quarter  the  outside 


138  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

diameter  of  the  valves,  well  filleted  under  the  disks  give  general 
satisfaction  for  ordinary  speeds ;  but  for  very  high  speed  motors 
the  valve  stems  should  be  somewhat  larger.  The  general  valve 
arrangements  are  well  shown  in  their  various  modifications  as 
illustrated  in  this  work. 

The  relative  size  of  these  valves  has  been  a  subject  of  enquiry 
and  discussion  with  so  far  no  fixed  general  rule  applicable  to  the 
required  conditions  of  each  element.  Some  designated  speed 
should  first  be  assigned  for  any  given  sized  cylinder  volume  from 
which  the  size  of  the  valves  may  be  computed  for  the  full  flow  of 
the  inlet  charge  and  for  the  discharge,  of  the  exhaust  without 
undue  back  pressure  during  the  times  of  the  inlet  and  exhaust 
strokes.  This  means  larger  valves  for  high  speed  than  for  low 
speed  motors — a  practice  too  often  ignored  to  the  detriment  of 
motor  efficiency  by  making  these  valves  too  small  for  the  motor's 
best  work;  while  if  made  to  meet  the  requirements  for  highest 
speed  capacity  their  efficiency  action  will  be  best  for  all  lower 
speeds.  This  should  be  made  a  study  with  the  designers  of  ex- 
plosive motors. 

The  present  practice  with  builders  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the 
valves  seems  to  vary  the  extreme  diameter  of  the  exhaust  valve 
from  a  quarter  to  four-tenths  of  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  and 
the  charging  valve  a  little  less,  sometimes  but  one-fifth  diameter 
of  the  cylinder. 

Indicator  cards  taken  from  motcrs  with  small  valves,  if 
properly  done,  plainly  show  the  effect  of  back  pressure  from  both 
the  exhaust  and  charging  strokes.  Good  practice  suggests  the 
larger  valves  with  full  lift  of  one-quarter  their  diameter  for 
developing  the  full  power  of  the  motor. 

The  ignition  devices  have  been  a  puzzle  to  motor*  builders  and 
operators  during  the  decades  of  explosive  motor  development, 
and  so-called  improvements  are  still  in  vogue.  For  gas  engines, 
tube  ignition  has  had  its  day  for  want  of  a  better  way  and  is  still 
in  use  to  a  considerable  extent,  probably  because  it  is  simple  and 
cheap  to  make ;  but  the  short  life  of  the  tubes  when  made  of  iron 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS.  139 

has  made  this  material  unreliable  and  the  resort  to  a  nickel  alloy 
and  porcelain  has  bettered  the  condition  which  still  has  its  annoy- 
ances. 

Electric  ignition  has  become  the  most  reliable  and  is  easily 
managed  and  adjusted  to  meet  the  requirements  for  timing.  In 
its  best  designs  it  has  been  largely  adopted  by  motor  builders, 
and  has  become  a  favorite  with  motor  engineers.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  troubles  with  early  designs  of  electric  igniters,  from  un- 
seen causes  due  to  the  hidden  position  of  their  vital  parts,  the 
later  improvements  have  brought  their  action  to  almost  a  posi- 
tive condition. 

Of  the  types  of  electric  igniters  in  use,  the  break  contact  or 
hammer  type  involves  the  motion  of  a  spindle  arranged  as  a 
rock  shaft  with  a  contact  arm  or  hammer  acting  upon  a  station- 
ary electrode,  or  a  vibrating  spindle  passing  through  the  walls  of 
the  cylinder  to  make  contact  with  the  same  hammering  force,  or, 
as  in  a  late  improvement,  to  dip  into  a  small  mercury  cistern. 
The  hammer  type,  whether  it  involves  the  action  of  a  spring  to 
cause  a  draw  break  contact  or  by  a  direct  face  contact,  is  subject 
to  wear  that  either  changes  the  adjustment  for  timing  or  pre- 
vents ignition  by  enlarging  the  contact  faces  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  allow  the  spark  to  occur  before  the  charge  can  pass  in  between 
the  faces.  Many  igniters  of  this  type  are  made  with  broad-faced 
hammers,  which  become  fouled  or  are  so  tightly  faced  by  the 
hammer  action  that  the  spark  passes  before  the  gas  charge  can 
reach  the  spark  between  the  faces,  causing  misfires. 

This  has  been  remedied  by  reducing  the  size  of  the  contact 
faces  and  rounding  their  surface,  which  serves  to  give  free  access 
of  the  explosive  charge  to  the  spark  at  the  moment  of  break  of 
contact. 

The  single  wire-wound  sparking  coil  and  battery  seems  to  be 
the  most  suitable  means  for  storage  of  electric  current  for  the  in- 
ternal break  contact  igniter. 

The  jump-spark  igniter  is  increasing  in  favor  among  en- 
gineers and  operators,  owing  to  the  simplicity  and  fixedness  of 


140  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 

its  cylinder  terminals,  which  places  the  intermittent  action  on  the 
outside  of  the  cylinder,  thereby  allowing  of  ready  observation 
and  adjustment  without  stopping  the  motor.  In  the  early  form 
of  the  jump-spark  igniter  with  both  terminals  passing  through 
a  single  insulation  in  the  plug,  the  space  on  the  insulated  face  of 
the  plug  was  made  so  short  that  by  the  fouling  of  the  surface 
the  electric  current  was  short-circuited  and  no  spark  was  pro 
duced;  this  gave  much  trouble  from  the  necessity  of  frequently 
removing  the  plug  for  cleaning  the  insulating  surface.  Its  con- 
struction has  been  modified  so  as  to  increase  the  distance  between 
the  terminals  by  an  extension  of  one  of  the  terminals  from  the 
body  of  the  plug,  which  was  an  improvement,  but  still  defective. 
A  later  improvement  has  been  made  by  extending  the  porcelain 
insulator  beyond  the  face  of  the  plug  from  a  half  to  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  and  extending  the  opposite  terminal  from  the 
face  of  the  plug  with  a  hooked  end  and  clearing  the  insulator  by 
a  quarter  inch,  thus  giving  more  than  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
of  insulating  surface  between  the  electrodes.  In  some  motors 
the  plug  terminal  is  a  single  positive  electrode,  while  the  negative 
electrode  is  fixed  to  the  cylinder  head  away  from  the  plug, 
making  a  greater  distance  in  which  short-circuiting  has  to  pass, 
but  this  is  a  mistake,  for  the  insulated  part  of  the  plug  is  the 
limitation  of  short-circuit  possibilities. 

The  jump  spark  system  of  ignition  requires  a  secondary  or 
induction  coil,  and,  for  further  efficiency,  a  condenser  with  a 
breaking  device  operated  from  the  valve  gear  shaft  to  open  the 
otherwise  closed  primary  coil  from  which  the  secondary  or  jump 
spark  is  generated  at  the  moment  of  closure  for  timing  the  spark. 

There  are  two  methods  of  operating  the  jump  spark  ignition ; 
in  one  a  magnetic  vibrator  is  employed  which  makes  ~and  breaks 
the  primary  circuit  many  times  during  the  open  contact  of  the 
time  switch  on  the  secondary  shaft,  during  which  moment  a 
series  of  sparks  is  sent  across  the  terminal  electrodes  in  the  com- 
bustion chambers,  thus  ensuring  ignition  by  repeated  sparking. 

In  the  use  of  the  induction  coil  without  the  vibrator,  but  a 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS.  141 

single  weak  spark  is  produced  at  the  opening  and  a  single  strong 
spark  again  at  the  closing  of  the  timing  switch,  thus  giving  two 
sparks;  but  the  first  is  not  considered  available,  except  from  a 
more  powerful  induction  coil  than  needed  for  the  vibrating  at- 
tachment. 

The  distance  or  opening  between  the  terminals  of  a  sparking 
plug  is  of  greater  importance  than  generally  considered,  as  much 
hidden  trouble  has  arisen  from  the  form  and  spacing  of  this 
important  adjunct  in  the  operation  of  explosive  motors. 

For  a  satisfactory  effect  a  four  element  battery  in  series  and 
an  induction  coil  for  sure  ignition  should  give  a  spark  of  maxi- 
mum range  from  three-eighths  to  'half  an  inch,  for  which  the 
terminals  of  the  sparking  plug  should  be  set  at  from  three  to 
four  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  apart,  or  one-quarter  of  the  ex- 
treme length  of  the  spark.  The  voltage  for  a  reliable  spark  need 
not  exceed  one  and  a  quarter  volts  in  each  of  a  four-battery 
series,  equal  to  five  volts,  acting  through  an  induction  coil  con- 
sisting of  a  soft  iron  wire  core  five-eighths  of  an  inch  diameter, 
No .  12  gauge,  insulated  by  a  paper  tube  spool  five  inches  in 
length  between  the  shoulders,  on  which  is  wound  two  layers  of 
cotton-covered  copper  wire,  No.  12,  B.  &  S.  gauge,  well  insulated 
with  paper  and  shellac  varnish.  For  the  secondary  coil,  wind 
10  ounces  of  No.  36  B.  &  S.  gauge  cotton-covered  copper  wire, 
shellacking  and  covering  each  winding  with  a  layer  of  uncal- 
lendered  writing  paper. 

A  vibrating  hammer  and  condenser  adds  to  the  efficiency  of 
the  jump  spark  igniter — see  these  devices  in  other  parts  of  this 
book. 


142 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


THE    APPLE    IGNITION    DYNAMO. 

In  Fig.  473  and  following  we  illustrate  a  neat  and  compact 
ignition  dynamo  made  by  the  Dayton  Electrical  Manufacturing 
Company,  Dayton,  Ohio.  It  is  entirely  enclosed  in  a  case,  prac- 


FlG.  475. — THE    APPLE    IGNITION    DYNAMO. 


FlG.  47T. — OPEN    END    SHOWING    COMMUTATOR    AND     CONNECTIONS. 

tically  water  and  dust  proof.  The  pulley  has  a  friction  clutch 
governor  acting  on  the  rim  of  the  pulley  and  attached  to  the 
spindle  of  the  armature.  The  clutch  shoes  of  the  governor  are 


IGNITERS    AND     EXPLODERS. 


143 


closed  on  the  rim  by  the  springs,  while  the  centrifugal  force  of 
overspeed  releases  them,  and  between  the  action  of  the  two  forces, 
the  dynamo  runs  steadily  with  a  variable  speed  of  the  motor. 

The  brushes  attached  to  the  spider  as  seen  in  the  open  end 
cut  are  a  combination  of  wire  gauze  and  carbon  placed  radially 
with  the  commutator,  so  that  the  dynamo  may  be  run  either  way 
without  readjustment  of  the  brushes. 

In  Fig.  470  is  a  sectional  detail  of  the  parts  of  the  Apple 
dynamo,  in  which  A  is  the  cast-iron  case ;  B,  the  hinged  cover ; 
C,  one  of  the  cast-iron  pole  pieces  of  the  field  magnets,  which  are 
fixed  to  the  case  by  screws  as  shown ;  D,  the  armature,  the  core 


FlG.  47U. — SECTIONAL    DIAGRAM    OF    THE    APPLE    DYNAMO. 


of  which  is  built  up  from  thin-toothed  disks  of  soft  sheet  iron ; 
E,  the  coil  of  one  of  the  field  magnets ;  F,  brass  bearing ;  G  and 
H,  hard-fiber  tubes  covering  the  spindle;  K,  brass  spider  and 
spindle  bearing ;  L,  commutator  with  mica  insulation ;  M,  wick- 
feed  oil  cup ;  N  and  P,  beveled  nuts  clamping  the  commutator 
bars ;  R,  driving  disk  and  rim  containing  the  centrifugal  clutch 
cover  shown  in  the  other  figures ;  S,  pinion  fixed  to  driving  disk 
R  and  revolving  freely  on  the  spindle. 


144 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


This  company  also  make  and  attach  to  these  dynamos  a 
storage  battery  with  two  cells  of  three  plates  each  and  of  four 
volts;  so  arranged  that  by  moving  a  switch  after  the  motor  is 
started  from  the  storage  battery,  the  dynamo  furnishes  the  re- 


FlG.  47V. GEAR  AND  PULLEY  CENTRIFUGAL  CLUTCH  GOVERNORS. 

quired   current   for   ignition  with   a   surplus   for  recharging  the 
battery. 

These   dynamos  are   made   for  both   break   and   jump   spark 


FlG.  47W. — WIRING   SYSTEM    FOR    IGNITION    DYNAMO    WITH    STORAGE    BATTERY, 
JUMP '  SPARK    COIL    AND    TIMING    DEVICE. 


ignition  as  desired,  giving  a  constant  current  of  about  4^  volts 
..at  from  1,000  to  1,200  revolutions  per  minute. 


IGNITERS    AND    EXPLODERS.  145 

A  wiring  system  suitable  for  these  dynamos  is  shown  in  Fig. 
-47W,  in  which  the  dynamo  is  directly  connected  with  the  storage 
battery  through  a  resistance  switch,  and  also  to  the  primary 
circuit  of  the  induction  coil,  and  to  the  timing  break  device, 
the  secondary  coil  being  in  direct  connection  with  the  sparking 
plug.  By  the  throw  of  the  switch  the  full  current  from  the  bat- 
tery leads  to  the  primary  winding  of  the  induction  coil  and  is 
interrupted  in  its  circuit  by  the  break  device,  and  at  another  posi- 
tion of  the  switch  nearly  the  full  current  of  the  dynamo  is  in  use 
for  sparking,  with  a  resistance  shunt  through  the  storage  battery 
that  restores  its  lost  charge  in  a  short  time. 

There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  this  system  of  ignition, 
•and  as  engineers  and  others  in  charge  of  explosive  motors  be- 
come more  familiar  with  their  apparent  complication,  the  more  they 
will  become  assured  of  their  reliability  and  certainty  of  operation. 
The  jump  spark  or  induction  coil  with  a  storage  battery  reserva- 
tion supplied  by  a  current  from  a  dynamo  will  no  doubt  soon  be- 
•come  the  universal  means  of  explosive  motor  ignition. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
CYLINDER  LUBRICATION. 

THE  lubrication  of  cylinders  of  explosive  motors  is  a  matter 
of  great  importance,  as  the  intensely  hot  gases  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  lubricating  oil,  although  the  oil  is  in  contact 
with  a  comparatively  cool  metallic  surface,  has  an  evaporative 


FIG.  48.— THE  MECHANICAL  LUBRICATOR. 

effect,  tending  to  thicken  the  oil  into  a  gummy  lining  on  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder.  To  avoid  this  and  keep  a  perfect  lu- 
brication, an  oil  that  is  adapted  to  this  severe  heat  trial  should 
be  used  and  fed  to  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston  in  constant 
flow,  and  not  too  much  or  too  little,  but  just  enough  so  that 
the  oil  cannot  be  pushed  into  the  combustion  chamber  in  ex- 
cess,  so  as  to  be  blown  through  the  exhaust  valve  to  clog  the 
passages  with  oily  soot. 

The  sight  feed  and  capillary  drop-oil  feeders  have  been  per- 
fected to  such  an  extent  in  the  United  States  that  they  are  al- 


CYLINDER    LUBRICATION. 


147 


most  in  universal  use.     Yet  on  some  engines  with  revolving 
valve-cam  shafts,  the  facility  for  obtaining  easily  the  motion 


PIG.  49.— THE  ROBEY  OIL  FEEDER,  SECTION. 

for  a  mechanical  lubricator  has  kept  this  form  in  use  on  many 
engines. 

In  Fig.  48  is  illustrated  a  mechanical  lubricator  used  on  the 


FIG.  50.— THE  ROBEY  OIL  FEEDER,  PLAN. 

Crossley  engines  in  England,  and  with  some  variations  on 
other  European  and  American  engines.  A  small  belt  from  the 
valve-cam  shaft  to  the  pulley  A  gives  the  required  motion  to 


148  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

the  spindle  and  crank  C  C,  to  which  is  loosely  attached  a  wire 
D,  that  dips  into  the  oil  and  carries  a  minute  portion  to  the 
wiper  E,  from  which  the  oil  drops  into  the  passage  to  the  cyl- 
inder. 

In  Figs.  49  and  50  is  shown  a  section  and  plan  of  a  lubrica- 
tor used  on  the  Robey  engines,  which  is  an  improvement  over 
the  previous  one,  in  that  it  has  a  small  receptacle  above  the 
level  of  the  main  oil  cistern,  which  is  fed  by  a  revolving  shaft 
and  crank  arm  with  drop  wire  reaching  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cistern  and  wiping  the  oil  on  a  fixed  wiper  over  the  receptacle, 
from  which  a  second  crank  arm  and  drop  wire  lifts  the  oil  to 
the  wiper  that  feeds  the  passage  to  the  cylinder.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  oil  for  the  cylinder  is  drawn  from  a  fixed  level, 
and  the  feed  is  therefore  perfectly  uniform  at  any  level  of  the 
oil  in  the  cistern. 

Strict  attention  should  be  given  to  the  quality  of  the  oil  used 
in  the  cylinder.  Such  oil  is  now  made  and  sold  as  gas  engine 
cylinder  oil  of  a  less  density  and  viscosity  than  the  ordinary 
cylinder  oil  and  more  fluid,  so  that  it  flows  readily  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  piston.  Such  oil  does  not  readily  gum  in  the  cylinder 
and  on  the  piston.  It  evaporates  more  readily  than  heavy  oil 
and  in  a  measure  mixes  with  the  explosive  charge,  is  burned  and 
discharged  with  the  gases  of  the  exhaust,  thus  avoiding  the  sooty 
oil  that  lodges  in  the  muffler  and  exhaust  pipe  from  the  heavier 
oils.  A  very  small  quantity  of  finely  pulverized  graphite  used 
with  this  oil,  occasionally,  gives  good  results  as  a  cylinder  lubri- 
cant and  imparts  a  smooth  and  glossy  surface  to  both  cylinder 
and  piston.  For  all  other  parts  of  the  engine  the  best  engine  oil 
is  none  too  good.  The  poorer  grades  of  machinery  oil  are  not 
economical  at  their  price. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
ON  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS. 

THE  drift  of  constructive  practice  in  the  United  States 
seems  generally  to  be  in  the  line  of  simplicity  and  least  num- 
ber of  parts,  in  order  to  conform  to  the  needs  of  the  people 
that  have  the  care  of  such  motive  power.  The  explosive  motor 
now  appeals  to  no  experience  as  an  engineer  for  its  care  and 
running;  yet  it  does  seem  to  require  some  common  sense  as  to 
cleanliness  and  the  propriety  of  things  that  may  assume  a 
menacing  or  dangerous  habit  by  neglect  of  some  of  the  few 
points  of  attention  required  in  persons  having  the  charge  of 
this  rising  prime  mover.  The  ability  to  discover  leakage  of 
gas  or  oil  vapors  or  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  pipe 
connections,  through  valves,  or  by  a  defective  or  worn  piston ; 
the  thumping  in  journal  boxes,  looseness  of  pins  and  piston 
thump  is  easily  acquired  when  a  person  assumes  the  care  of  an 
engine.  The  regulation  of  the  explosive  mixtures  are  fully 
explained  in  the  instruction  pamphlets  and  display  sheets  of 
the  builders,  and  from  the  completeness  of  instructions  fur- 
nished there  seems  nothing  to  fear  in  the  first  start  of  an  ex- 
plosive motor  by  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence.  y  , 

Cleanliness  being  of  the  first  order,  due  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  cleaning  of  the  cylinder,  valves,  and  exhaust  pipe 
at  stated  intervals ;  in  some  motors  at  least  once  a  month,  in 
other  motors  several  months  may  elapse  without  internal  clean- 
ing being  necessary,  apparently  without  detriment.  But  we 
apprehend  that  the  quality  of  the  fuel  has  much  to  do  with  the 
fouling  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  exhaust  pipe,  and 
therefore  the  quality  of  the  fuel  should  be  suggestive  of  the 

times  indicated  for  internal  cleaning.     The  outside  surfaces 

149 


150  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

should  be  wiped  off  before  starting  or  at  the  close  of  work 
every  day,  especially  where  the  location  is  in  a  room  with 
working-people,  as  the  odor  of  the  lubricating  oil  is  not  agree- 
able when  the  oil  is  spread  in  excess  over  an  engine. 

In  workshops  or  rooms  where  dust  prevails  it  is  most  desir- 
able to  enclose  the  motor  in  a  small  room  by  itself,  well  venti- 
lated from  without,  for  motor  cylinders  are  mostly  open  and 
gather  dust  on  their  oily  surfaces,  and  dust  in  the  ingoing  air 
of  combustion  leaves  grit  and  ashes  in  the  cylinder.  The  oil 
for  lubricating  the  cylinder  should  be  of  the  best "  cylinder  oil" 
of  the  trade,  and  is  sold  by  many  dealers  as  "  gas-engine  cyl- 
inder oil."  It  is  not  so  expensive  as  to  preclude  its  use  for  all 
the  moving  parts  of  an  explosive  motor,  although  a  poorer 
quality  is  in  general  use. 

Automatic  oil  feeders  are  almost  universally  furnished  with 
these  engines,  so  that  there  should  be  very  little  waste  of  oil. 
In  cleaning  the  internal  parts  from  carbon  and  oil  crust,  no 
sharp  scrapers  should  be  used  on  any  rubbing  parts  or  the  bear- 
ings of  valves.  If  unable  to  remove  the  crust  with  a  cloth  and 
kerosene  oil,  a  hardwood  stick  and  oil  will  generally  remove  the 
incrustation  down  to  the  metal,  while  the  valves,  if  not  cut, 
only  need  rubbing  on  their  seats  with  finely  pulverized  pumice 
or  other  polishing  powder.  Emery  is  not  recommended,  as 
valves  often  get  too  much  grinding  to  their  detriment  by  the 
use  of  this  material. 

In  starting  a  motor  it  should  always  be  turned  over  in  its 
running  direction,  and  when  compression  makes  this  difficult 
the  relief  valve  (most  motors  have  one)  or  the  exhaust  or  air 
valve  may  be  opened  to  clear  the  cylinder,  if  an  overcharge  of 
gas  or  a  failure  has  been  made  at  the  first  turn. 

In  most  cases  turning  the  fly-wheel  two  or  three  revolutionr 

.  will  clear  and  charge  the  cylinder  under  the  usual  conditions 

for  starting.     With  most  of  the  large  motors  a  starting  device 

is  provided,  which  is  described  in  Fig.  47,  and  in  the  special 

exhibit  of  the  American  explosive  motors  further  on. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS  151 

Some  of  the  troubles  to  be  met  are  severe  explosions  after 
several  misfires,  by  which  the  cylinder  may  become  overcharged 
with  the  combustible  mixture.  This  is  often  caused  by  irreg- 
ular work  on  the  engine,  and  the  consequent  scavengering  of 
the  cylinder  of  the  products  of  previous  explosions,  replacing 
with  pure  mixtures  at  the  next  charge.  Again,  by  a  misfire 
from  failure  in  the  igniter  an  explosive  charge  is  intensified  at 
the  next  ignition  or  exploded  in  the  exhaust  pipe.  Other  in- 
terruptions sometimes  occur,  such  as  the  sticking  of  the  exhaust 
valve  open  by  gumming  of  the  spindle  or  a  weak  spring.  From 
this  may  also  arise  some  of  the  back-firings  in  the  muffler  and 
exhaust  pipe.  All  of  these  explosions  taking  place  at  irregular 
times  may  be  attributed,  first,  to  irregular  work ;  second,  to  ir- 
regularity in  the  operation  of  the  valve  gear  or  igniter,  and  al- 
though not  pleasant  to  the  ear  may  not  be  considered  danger- 
ous, because  the  motors  and  all  their  parts  subject  to  explosion 
are  made  equal  in  working  strength  to  the  greatest  pressure 
made  by  such  explosions. 

With  the  compression  usual  in  American  motors,  40  to  50 
Ibs.,  the  greatest  force  from  misfire  or  back-fire  explosives 
can  scarcely  reach  300  Ibs.  per  square  inch  in  the  cylinders 
and  150  Ibs.  in  the  mufflers,  unless,  by  a  possible  contrac- 
tion of  the  exhaust  pipe  by  carbon  deposit,  a  muffler  pot  may 
have  possibilities  of  rupture.  In  no  case  should  an  exhaust 
pipe  be  turned  into  a  chimney.  With  gas  engines  the  full  power 
is  sometimes  not  realized  from  insufficient  gas  supply.  The 
gas  bag  is  a  good  indicator  of  this  condition,  caused  by  a  too 
small  gas  pipe  or  a  small  meter,  by  which  a  flabby  appearance 
of  the  gas  bag  shows  that  the  motor  is  drawing  more  than  the 
pipe  or  meter  can  supply  with  a  proper  working  pressure. 

The  muffler  pots  have  been  known  to  accumulate  water  in 
cold  weather  by  condensation  of  the  water  vapor  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  gas  and  air,  to  such  an 
extent  as  sometimes  to  cause  fear  in  an  attendant  of  a  cracked 
cylinder  and  leakage  of  water  in  from  the  circulation. 


152  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

The  water  should  be  drawn  off  occasionally  from  the  muffler 
pot  by  a  cock.  •  Gas  motors  running  with  electric  igniters  some- 
times do  not  start  at  first  trial  from  the  accumulation  of  air  in 
the  gas-pipe.  Testing  by  a  gas-burner  or  a  second  trial  will 
show  where  the  difficulty  lies  and  its  remedy.  And  finally, 
much  caution  should  be  observed  in  examining  the  interior  of 
valve  chambers  and  the  electric  exploders  by  taking  off  caps  or 
plugs  and  using  a  light  near  them  until  assured  that  fuel  inlets- 
are  closed  and  the  motor  has  been  turned  over  several  times  to 
clear  it  of  all  explosive  mixture.  The  consequences  of  explosion 
from  peepholes  are  obvious.  Even  when  a  motor  has  been  idle 
for  a  time  it  should  be  opened  with  the  above  caution. 

The  adjustment  of  governors  only  require  care  and  a  careful 
study  of  the  directions  for  operating  the  engines,  as  there  are 
too  many  variations  in  the  designs  and  methods  of  adjustment 
for  definite  instructions  under  this  head.  Much  care  is  required 
in  renewing  the  ignition  tubes,  especially  after  the  spare  tubes 
furnished  with  the  engine  have  been  all  used.  The  same  size 
gas-pipe  and  of  the  same  length  as  the  tubes  furnished  with 
the  engine  should  be  made  and  the  end  welded  up  or  capped, 
so  that  they  may  contain  the  same  volume  as  the  original  tubes. 
This  caution  will  insure  the  uniform  adjustment  of  the  time  of 
ignition  by  change  of  tubes;  otherwise  tinkering  with  the 
position  of  the  Bunsen  burner  will  not  enable  an  attendant  not 
experienced  in  regulating  the  time  of  ignition  to  regulate  it 
with  any  degree  of  certainty.  The  regulation  when  once  lost 
can  be  properly  tested  only  by  an  indicator  card. 

With  a  timing  valve  and  the  amount  of  lead  for  the  return 
fire  from  the  tube  being  known,  the  adjustment  of  the  timing- 
valve  throw  can  be  made  from  the  position  of  the  dead  centre 
of  the  crank  at  the  end  of  the  forward  stroke.  The  timing 
lead  is  the  time  that  is  required  for  the  mixture  to  pass  the  valve 
and  become  compressed  in  the  igniting  tube  and  the  flame  to 
return  to  the  combustion  chamber,  as  measured  on  the  circum- 
ference of  the  timing- valve  cam. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS.  153 

Other  than  iron  tubes  are  used,  such  as  nickel,  aluminum 
bronze,  and  porcelain,  with  satisfactory  results.  The  porcelain 
tubes  are  made  short  and  require  a  special  fitting  to  adapt 
them  to  a  chimney,  or  the  chimney  should  be  of  special  design 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  34) ,  for  a  cross  impact  of  the  flame  of  the 
Bunsen  burner. 

There  are  many  points  in  the  management  of  explosive 
motors  that  cannot  be  discussed  in  a  general  treatise,  arising 
from  the  varied  details  of  design,  in  which  special  reference  to- 
the  methods  of  operating  the  valve  gears  of  igniters  and  gov- 
ernors of  each  individual  design  is  required.  The  special  in- 
structions furnished  by  builders  are  ample  for  the  operation  of 
their  motors,  and  if  carefully  studied  lead  to  success  in  their 
operation  by  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  or  tact  in 
handling  moving  machinery. 


Another  year's  experience  with  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  vapor 
engines  has  brought  out  more  strongly  the  good  qualities  of 
well-made  explosive  motors,  and  placed  them  far  ahead  as  a 
reliable,  cheap  and  easily  managed  motive  power,  even  up  to 
several  hundred  horse-power  in  a  single  installation.  The  appli- 
cation of  power  from  explosive  motors  for  the  generation  of 
electricity  for  lighting  and  the  transmission  of  power  is  no 
longer  a  mooted  point  of  economy,  but  has  become  a  fixed 
principle  in  the  application  of  prime  moving  power.  The  gov- 
erning devices  have  been  improved  and  applied  in  the  line  of 
uniform  motion  from  intermittent  impulse.  An  electric  gas 
governing  device  for  controlling  the  flow  of  gas  to  correspond 
with  the  required  amperage  is  a  new  governing  application  that 
seems  to  break  the  last  objection  to  the  use  of  explosive  motors 
for  generating  the  electric  current  for  lighting  purposes. 

The  hot  tube  ignition  seems  to  hold  its  own  with  increased 
power  and  life  by  the  use  of  the  nickel  alloy  and  porcelain  tubes 


154  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

as  described  in  the  article  on  Hot  Tubes  ;  for  while  the  elec- 
tric spark  has  its  advantages  in  some  respects,  it  has  likewise 
its  annoyances.  When  the  spark  or  ignition  fails,  much  deten- 
tion may  follow  the  search  for  the  fault.  The  hidden  contact 
points,  fouling  of  sparking  insulation,  battery  faults  and  con- 
nections are  to  be  looked  after;  or  if  a  generator  is  used,  the 
chances  for  faults  in  a  constant  current  generator  are  no  less, 
but  also  become  a  cause  of  watchfulness. 

As  it  is  now  well  known  that  the  full  firing  of  an  explosive 
charge  is  not  instantaneous  from  the  moment  of  ignition  in  the 
hot  tube,  and  that  the  greatest  mean  pressure  on  the  piston 
results  from  perfect  ignition  of  the  whole  charge  at  the  moment 
of  the  passage  of  the  crank  over  the  center,  it  becomes  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance  that  the  hot  tube  and  Bun- 
sen  burner  shall  be  adjusted  so  as  to  allow  the  compressed 
fresh  charge  to  reach  the  part  of  the  hot  tube  at  which  the  tem- 
perature is  high  enough  to  cause  ignition  of  the  charge  at  a 
moment  just  before  the  crank  reaches  its  center.  The  variable 
mixture  of  the  charge  either  from  misfiring  of  a  previous  charge 
or  from  the  action  of  an  over-sensitive  governor  has  made  this 
adjustment  heretofore  somewhat  difficult,  especially  where 
short-lived  tubes  were  in  use,  for  a  change  of  tube  usually  varies 
the  moment  of  ignition.  Since  the  advent  of  the  nickel  alloy  and 
porcelain  tubes  this  difficulty  has  been  greatly  overcome,  and 
the  ignition  tube  has  been  restored  to  favor  with  many  engine 
builders  who  had  adopted  the  electric  system  for  its  positive 
timing.  The  marine  engine,  however,  will  probably  hold  to 
•electric  ignition  from  the  obvious  difficulty  in  managing  a  gaso- 
line burner  for  such  service. 

Many  minor  improvements  of  the  past  year  have  conduced 
to  a  general  economy  in  running  expense  and  to  ease  of  man- 
agement, among  which  may  be  noted  a  new  device  on  the 
White  &  Middleton  engines,  by  the  turning  of  which  the  time  of 
sparking  is  retarded  at  starting,  and  the  engine  prevented  from  the 


MANAGEMENT    OF    EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS.  155 

possibility  of  starting  backwards  by  explosion  before  the  crank 
reaches  the  center. 

In  this  device  the  sparking  push-blade  has  a  double  trip 
swiveled  on  the  push-rod,  the  turning  over  of  which  changes 
the  time  of  ignition. 

The  use  of  a  generator  armature  revolving  within  the  sphere 
of  a  permanent  magnet,  and  operated  from  a  gear  on  the  main 
shaft  of  the  motor  to  a  pinion  on  the  armature,  is  in  use  on  the 
Sumner  engine,  now  made  by  the  F.  M.  Watkins  Co. ,  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  It  is  growing  in  favor,  and  appears  from  inspection  to 
be  a  reliable  and  satisfactory  device.  In  trials  of  gasoline 
engines  with  gas  engines  of  the  same  size  and  construction,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  indicated  horse-power  from  gasoline  is 
from  12  to  20  per  cent,  higher  than  from  illuminating  gas,  when 
running  at  full  power.  This  does  not  correspond  with  the 
assigned  number  of  heat  units  per  cubic  foot  of  gasoline  vapor 
and  illuminating  gas ;  for  gasoline  vapor  has  been  credited  with 
almost  the  same  value  in  heat  units  with  1 6  candle-power  illu- 
minating gas.  The  excessive  power  of  gasoline  vapor  is  proba- 
bly due  to  modern  methods  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating 
gas,  by  which  a  large  percentage  of  non- combustible  element  is 
produced  in  the  form  of  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen. 

These  elements  of  non-combustion  exist  to  a  very  large  extent 
in  the  Dowson  and  water  gas,  which  is  well  known  to  require  a 
much  larger  engine  for  equal  power  with  a  high  illuminating 
gas  or  gasoline  engine.  There  is  a  tendency  toward  increase  of 
compression  to  near  its  greatest  theoretical  economy,  and  en- 
gines are  now  in  use  with  compression  of  80  or  more  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  with  a  clearance  of  30  per  cent,  of  the 
space  swept  by  the  piston,  with  claims  of  from  14  to  12  cubic 
feet  of  gas  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour. 


150  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

POINTERS  ON   EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS. 

The  explosive  motor  now  appeals  to  no  experience  and  re- 
sponsibility of  a  professional  engineer  for  its  care  and  running, 
yet  it  does  require  much  common  sense  as  to  cleanliness  and  the 
propriety  of  things  that  may  assume  a  menacing  or  dangerous 
habit  by  neglect  of  some  of  the  few  points  of  attention  absolutely 
essential. 

The  ability  to  discover  and  locate  leakage  of  gas  or  oil  vapors 
or  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  pipe  connections,  through 
valves  or  by  a  defective  or  worn  piston ;  the  thumping  in 
journals,  looseness  of  pins  and  piston  thump,  is  easily  acquired 
when  a  person  assumes  the  care  of  an  explosive  motor.  The 
regulation  of  the  explosive  mixtures  is  so  fully  explained  in  the 
instructions  now  sent  out  with  the  motors  that  there  seems 
nothing  to  fear  in  their  first  starting  by  any  person  of  ordinary 
intelligence. 

In  the  operation  of  these  motors,  cleanliness  is  of  the  first 
order,  and  due  attention  should  be  given  to  the  cleaning  of  the 
cylinder,  valves  and  exhaust  pipe  at  stated  intervals,  according 
to  the  kind  of  fuel  used.  The  highly  carbonaceous  gases  and 
vapors  require  more  attention  in  internal  cleaning  than  those 
containing  an  excess  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  constituent. 

In  using  highly  carbonaceous  gases  and  vapors,  cylinders, 
valves  and  exhaust  pipes  need  cleaning  at  least  once  a  month, 
while  with  the  cleaner  fuels,  several  months  may  elapse  without 
cleaning. 

The   outer   surfaces,    boxes   and   parts   bespattered    with   oil 

should  be  kept  clean,  as  well  as  the  floor,  which  should  have  a 

zinc  lining  around  the  motor.     Wiping  up  twice  a  day  is  none 

too  much  for  cleanliness  and  the  welfare  of  people  working  in  the 

•same  room  with  a  motor. 

It  is  better  to  enclose  the  motor  in  a  small  room  by  itself,  well 
ventilated  from  without ;  it  keeps  dust  from  the  cylinder  and  foul 
odors  from  the  workrooms.  It  pays  to  use  the  best  cylinder  oil 


MANAGEMENT   OF   EXPLOSIVE    MOTORS.  157 

for  all  parts  of  a  motor,  as  it  requires  less  of  the  good  oil  than  of 
the  poor  quality  for  lubricating  any  surface  and  is  inducive  of 
efficiency.  In  cleaning  the  internal  parts,  avoid  the  use  of  a 
sharp  scraper  on  rubbing  surfaces  and  valve  seats.  A  hardwood 
stick  and  kerosene  oil  will  generally  do  this  work  and  save  much 
after  trouble. 

For  regrinding  valves,  emery  should  not  be  used;  pulverized 
pumice  stone  and  oil  do  the  work  well  without  over  grinding. 

Some  of  the  troubles  met  with  in  the  operation  of  explosive 
motors  are  severe  explosions  after  one  or  several  misfires,  by 
which  the  cylinder  becomes  overcharged  with  combustible  mix- 
ture and  on  firing  produces  an  excessive  explosion  and  kick  in  the 
motor.  This  is  due  to  irregular  work  of  the  motor  or  misfiring 
of  the  igniter.  Other  interruptions  sometimes  occur,  such  as 
the  sticking  of  the  exhaust  valve  open  by  gumming  of  the 
spindle.  From  this  may  also  arise  the  back  firing  in  the  muffler 
pot  and  exhaust  pipe,  which  although  not  pleasant  to  the  ear,  are 
not  considered  dangerous,  because  the  motors  and  all  their  parts 
subject  to  this  explosive  force  are  made  equal  in  working 
strength  to  the  greatest  pressure  from  such  explosions. 

One  possible  evil  is  the  rupture  of  a  weak  muffler  pot  from 
the  choking  of  the  exhaust  pipe  by  soot — a  suggestion  to  make 
the  exhaust  pipe  from  the  muffler  pot  two  pipe  sizes  larger  than 
the  usually  assigned  size  for  the  motor. 

In  examining  the  interior  of  an  explosive  motor,  care  should 
be  taken  to  remove  any  gas  or  vapor  from  all  chambers  and  re- 
cesses by  closing  their  inlets  and  turning  over  the  fly-wheel  sev- 
eral times  with  the  air  inlet  open.  This  is  most  essential  for 
safety  in  removing  plugs  for  examining  the  sparking  electrodes. 
A  few  accidents  have  happened  when  looking  at  the  sparking 
device  through  a  plug  hole. 

An  accumulation  of  air  in  the  gas  pipe  is  sometimes  the  cause 
of  failure  in  starting  with  an  electric  igniter,  and  often  attributed 
to  the  failure  of  the  spark.  A  search  in  both  directions  will  find 
the  true  cause  of  failure. 


158  GAS;    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 

On  purchasing  a  motor,  the  one  who  is  to  operate  it  should 
carefully  study  the  mechanism  and  the  instructions,  as  the  detail 
in  operating  the  three  kinds  of  fuel,  gas,  gasoline  and  kerosene 
or  crude  oil  vary  enough  to  require  special  inquiry  for  the  opera- 
tion of  each  kind. 

The  method  of  ignition  is  also  peculiar  and  requires  special 
instruction  in  either  of  the  kinds  of  devices  by  which  the  motor 
is  operated.  Whether  tube,  hammer  spark  or  jump  spark  is  se- 
lected, they  are  each  so  different  in  detail  as  to  need  special  in- 
struction. 

One  of  the  annoyances  in  explosive  motor  service  is  the  in- 
crustation of  the  water  jacket  by  lime.  Hard  water  or  such  as 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  lime 
when  used  as  a  free  running  stream,  has  been  found  to  choke  a 
water  jacket  in  a  few  months  so  as  to  render  the  jacket  almost 
useless  as  a  cooling  device.  To  obviate  this  difficulty  a  cooling 
tank  of  about  twenty  gallons  per  horse-power  should  be  used,  set 
above  the  cylinder  and  of  such  form  as  to  give  large  surface  to 
the  air  with  a  free  circulation  on  all  sides.  A  round  tank  gives 
the  least  air  cooling  surface,  while  a  long  tank  of  galvanized 
sheet  iron  with  vertical  corrugated  sides  has  given  the  most  satis- 
factory service. 

By  the  use  of  a  cooling  tank  charged  with  the  best  water 
attainable,  preferably  rain  water  and  a  pound  of  caustic  soda  to 
each  five  gallons,  an  encrusted  jacket  can  soon  be  cleaned  or  the 
incrustation  so  loosened  that  it  can  be  easily  scraped  and  washed 
out  through  the  core  openings.  Acid  and  water  has  been  recom- 
mended and  used ;  but  such  treatment  is  not  as  convenient  as  the 
soda  circulation. 

The  manufacturer,  if  he  understands  his  interests,  usually 
furnishes  sufficient  explanatory  matter  to  enable  the  operator  to 
understand  all  details.  Often  this  has  been  a  failure  to  the  detri- 
ment of  both  maker  and  purchaser ;  but  if  the  seller  thinks  he  can 
afford  to  be  careless  about  this,  the  buyer  need  not,  for  all  shut- 
downs and  interruptions  caused  by  failure  to  operate  a  motor 
satisfactorily  are  more  or  less  expensive. 


MANAGEMENT   OF   EXPLOSIVE   MOTORS.  159 

Finally,  in  starting  a  gas  or  gasoline  engine,  it  is  well  to  re- 
member a  few  facts  in  regard  to  the  explosive  qualities  of  the  gas 
or  gasoline  mixture.  It  has  been  shown  in  other  parts  of  this 
work  that  the  proportions  of  gas  or  gasoline  and  air  have  their 
limits  for  explosive  effect  and  that  too  much  or  too  little  of  the 
fuel  element  is  non-explosive.  This  is  often  the  real  trouble, 
when  in  starting  a  motor  it  refuses  to  go,  in  which  case  it  is 
better  to  shut  off  the  fuel  and  turn  the  fly-wheel  over  to  clear  the 
cylinder  of  the  first  charge  with  the  relief  cock  open ;  it  should 
always  be  open  in  starting  to  save  the  severe  work  of  com- 
pression. The  same  difficulty  may  also  occur  in  charging  a  self- 
starting  motor  of  the  larger  size,  which  cannot  be  turned  over  to 
relieve  the  cylinder  of  the  mis-fired  charge,  but  by  lifting  the 
exhaust  valve  and  charging  lightly  with  some  pure  air  or  fuel,  as 
the  judgment  of  the  engineer  may  suggest,  the  start  may  be 
made.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  positive  and  full  instruction  that 
every  builder  of  explosive  motors  should  furnish  with  each  motor 
sent  out,  as  well  as  a  practical  lesson  whenever  possible  to  the 
person  that  is  to  operate  the  motor. 

Do  not  once  think  because  a  motor  slows  down  by  the  turning 
on  of  one  or  two  more  machines  that  it  has  been  giving  power  to, 
that  more  fuel  is  all  that  is  needed,  for  it  may  have  been  running 
with  more  or  less  fuel  than  was  due  to  the  greatest  mean  pres- 
sure. It  may  be  noted  that  I  part  good  illuminating  gas  to  6 
parts  air  or  i  part  of  heavy  oil  gas  to  9  parts  air  or  I  part  gaso- 
line vapor  to  8  parts  air  gives  the  quickest  explosion,  the  highest 
explosive  temperature  and  the  greatest  mean  pressure.  Any  de- 
partures from  these  proportions  in  the  mixtures  are  weakening 
in  their  effects,  and  where  the  highest  power  and  efficiency  of  the 
motor  is  required  any  variation  from  the  above-named  propor- 
tions are  not  the  most  economical  in  practice.  As  between  the 
hit-and-miss  charges  and  the  graduation  of  the  charge  in  its 
best  mixture,  there  has  been  and  is  a  margin  for  discussion  in 
which  builders  of  explosive  motors  do  not  agree,  and  may  not, 
until  by  long  experience,  trials  and  new  methods  of  regulation 
may  lead  to  the  best  practice. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
THE   MEASUREMENT   OF   POWER. 

THE  methods  of  measuring  power  are  of  but  two  general 
forms  or  principles,  although  the  individual  machines  or  instru- 
ments for  accomplishing  the  measurement  are  of  many  kinds 
and  of  a  variety  of  construction. 

The  one  form  is  especially  adapted  for  the  measurement  of 
the  available  power  of  prime  movers  under  the  various  condi- 
tions of  the  application  of  their  elementary  constituents,  by  the 
absorption  of  their  whole  output  of  power  at  the  point  of  de- 
livery and  there  record  the  value  of  its  force  and  velocity.  Its 
representative  is  the  brake  dynamometer,  or  Prony's  brake,  in 
the  various  details  of  construction  that  it  has  assumed  as  de- 
signed and  applied  to  meet  the  views  or  fancies  of  mechanical 
engineers. 

The  second  form  is  a  marked  departure  from  the  structural 
form  of  the  first,  and  with  the  principle  in  view  of  placing  as 
little  obstruction  as  possible  to  the  transmission  of  power  from 
the  prime  mover  to  the  receiver  of  power,  to  measure  the  actual 
net  or  differential  tension  of  a  belt  or  gear,  and  with  its  veloc- 
ity indicate  the  exact  amount  of  power  delivered  to  a  line  of 
shafting  or  a  machine.  These  are  called  transmitting  dynamom- 
eters in  distinction  from  the  absorption  dynamometers  of  the 
Prony  type.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  one  with  a  dial  and  index 
pointer,  by  which  the  hand  on  the  dial  must  be  constantly 
watched  and  recorded  for  a  length  of  time  and  a  mean  pressure 
obtained  from  the  varying  record.  The  other  carries  a  self- 
marking  register  moved  by  clockwork,  by  which  the  actual 
pressure  is  a  constant  record  for  any  desired  time,  or  a  full 

•day's  work,  the  only  personal  observation  required  being  the 
160 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER. 


161 


speed  of  the  pulley  or  belt  or  its  average  throughout  the  time  or 
day 

In  Fig.  5 1  we  illustrate  the  first  form,  a  simple  absorption 


dynamometer  or  Prony's  brake,  named  after  its  inventor,  in 
which  A  is  the  radius  of  the  pulley  drum  or  shaft  to  which  re- 
sistance may  be  applied;  B  the  length  of  the  lever  from  the 


162  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

centre  of  the  shaft  to  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  spring  scale 
or  other  means  of  measuring  the  tension  of  the  lever;  C  a 
spring  scale,  which  is  preferable  for  light  woi  k  within  its  range ; 
and  N  N  lever  nuts  for  quick  control  of  the  pressure. 

In  Fig.  52  is  presented  a  simple  and  inexpensive  arrange- 
men  of  a  power- absorbing  brake  for  a  large  driving-pulley  or 
finished  fly-wheel,  in  which  a  belt  is  lined  with  blocks  of  wood 
spaced  and  fastened  to  the  belt  with  screws  or  nails,  a  few  of 
the  blocks  projecting  over  the  edge  with  shoulders  to  prevent 
the  belt  from  running  off  the  pulley. 

Spring  scales  may  be  purchased  of  the  straight  and  dial 
pattern  up  to  one  or  two  hundred  pounds  capacity  at  reason- 
able figures,  and  are  a  source  of  satisfaction  in  showing  the 
amount  of  vibration  due  to  irregular  pulsations  of  the  motive 
element  and  crank  motion.  Where  the  measurement  of  power 
beyond  the  range  of  a  spring  balance  is  required,  the  use  of  a 
platform  scale  or  any  other  weighing  device  may  be  made 
available.  With  a  platform  scale  the  light  wooden  strut,  E, 
Fig.  52,  may  be  adjusted  to  any  length  and  vertically  reaching^ 
from  the  platform  to  the  horizon  line,  B,  from  the  centre  of  the 
shaft;  lanyards  or  any  convenient  means  being  used  to  keep 
the  end  of  the  lever  from  swaying. 

Water  from  a  squirt  can  is  the  best  lubricant  for  this  class  of 
dynamometers,  as  it  can  be  easily  thrown  upon  the  face  of  the 
pulley  at  the  interstices  of  the  blocks  and  lagging,  and  by  its 
quick  evaporation  carries  off  the  heat  generated  by  friction. 
Soapy  water  has  been  used  to  good  effect  in  preventing  irreg- 
ular pressure  or  stickiness  of  the  friction  surfaces. 

It  matters  not  in  what  direction  the  brake  lever  is  placed 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  observation,  so  long  as  the  pull  of 
the  scale  is  made  at  right  angles  to  the  radial  line  from  the 
shaft  center.  Its  weight,  as  indicated  on  the  scale,  with  the 
friction  blocks  or  strap  loosened  in  any  position  that  it  may  be 
set,  should  be  noted  and  a  record  made  of  the  amount,  which 
must  be  deducted  from  the  total  observed  weight  of  the  trial. 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER.  163 

If  it  is  necessary  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  lever  or  the 
relative  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  pulley  (as  shown  in  Figs. 
51  and  52),  then  the  weight  of  the  lever  must  be  added  to  the 
weight  shown  by  the  scale  under  trial.  When  the  platform 
scale  is  used  the  weight  of  the  lever  must  necessarily  be  down- 
ward and  should  be  deducted  from  the  weight  shown  by  the 


FIG.  53.—  DIFFERENTIAL  STRAP  BRAKE. 

scale  under  trial.  Making  D  equal  the  diameter  of  the  face  of 
the  pulley,  fly-wheel,  or  shaft  upon  which  friction  is  applied,  B 
the  length  of  the  lever  from  the  centre  of  the  shaft  to  the  point 
of  the  scale  suspension,  A  the  radius  of  the  pulley  fly-wheel  or 
shaft,  and  R  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  shaft  per  min- 
ute :  the  weight  used  in  the  formula  must  be  the  net  weight  of 
the  power  stress,  or  the  gross  observed  weight  less  the  weight 
of  the  lever.  Then 


TD 

D  X  3.1416  X  R  X  -     X  weight 


=  horse-power, 


33,000 

B  X  6.2832  x  R  X  W 

or     —  -  -  -  -  =  horse-power. 
33,000 

T> 

T-  X  weight  =  the  stress  or  pull  at  the  face  of  the  pulley,  and 


i64 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


D  X  3.1416  X  R  =  the  velocity  of  the  face  of  the  pulley  or  of 
the  belt  that  it  is  to  carry. 

In  Fig-.  53  is  represented  a  simple  and  easily  arranged  dif- 
ferential strap  brake  or  dynamometer  for  small  motors  of  less 
than  two  horse-power.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  belting  held 


FIG.   54.— DIFFERENTIAL.  ROPE  BRAKE. 

in  place  on  the  pulley  by  clips  or  only  strings  fastened 
parallel  with  the  shaft  to  keep  the  belt  from  slipping  off; 
two  spring  scales,  one  of  which  is  anchored  and  the  other 
attached  to  a  hand  lever  to  regulate  the  compression 
of  the  belt  upon  the  surface  of  the  pulley,  when  the 
differential  weight,  B  —  C,  on  the  scales  may  be  noted  sim- 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER.  165 

ultaneously  with  the  revolutions  of  the  pulley.     The  simple 
formula 

D  X  3.1416  X  R  X  differential  weight 

—  r=  norse-power. 

33,000 

Fig.  54  illustrates  a  rope  absorption  dynamometer  or  brake 
with  a  complete  wrap  on  the  surface  of  the  pulley,  very  suitable 
for  grooved  pulleys  or  fly-wheels  used  for  rope  transmission. 
In  this  form  the  friction  tension  may  be  regulated  with  a  lever 
as  at  A.  The  weight  (W)  in  the  formula  is  the  differential  of 
the  opposite  tensions  of  the  two  scales,  or  B— C=W,  Fig.  54, 

D  X  3.1416  X  R  X  W 

and  the  formula  will  then  be :  =-—* =  horse- 

33,000 

power,  as  in  the  notation,  Fig.  53. 

Thus  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  difference  of  the  pull 
in  a  rope  or  belt  on  the  two  sides  of  a  pulley,  multiplied  by  the 
velocity  of  the  rim  in  feet  per  minute,  and  the  product  divided 
by  33,000,  gives  the  horse-power  either  absorbed  or  transmitted 
by  the  rope. 

The  Measurement  of  Speed. 

The  revolutions  of  a  motor  may  be  readily  obtained  by  an 
ordinary  hand  counter  with  watch  in  hand  to  mark  the  time ; 
but  for  accurate  work  and  to  show  the  variations  in  the  fly- 
wheel speed  by  the  intervals  of  revolution  between  impulses, 
and  especially  the  effect  of  mischarges  or  impulses  due  to  gov- 
erning the  speed,  there  is  no  more  accurate  method  than  by 
the  use  of  the  centrifugal  counter  or  tachometer. 

These  instruments  are  designed  to  show  at  a  glance  a  con- 
tinuous indication  of  the  actual  speed  and  its  variation  within 
2  per  cent,  by  careful  handling  of  the  instrument.  The  tach- 
ometer (Fig,  55)  with  a  single  dial  scale  3  inches  in  diameter, 
reading  from  100  to  1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  and  by  chang- 
ing the  gear  for  the  range  of  gas-engine  indication  'the  actual 
revolutions  will  be  one-half  the  indicated  revolutions,  and  each 
divided  by  2  will  represent  the  actual  speed.  In  this  manner 


r66 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


a  very  delicate  reading1  of  the  variation  in  speed  may  be  ob- 
tained.    For  testing"  the  variation  of  speed  in  electric-lighting 


PlO.  55.— THE  TACHOMETER. 


FIG.  S5A.— THE  TRIPLE  INDEXED 
TACHOMETRE. 


plants  operated  by  gas  or  gasoline  engines,  there  is  no  method 
so  satisfactory  as  by  the  use  of  the  tachometer. 

The  triple  indexed   tachometer  (Fig.  5 5  A) ^  is  a  most  con- 


• 

THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER.  167 

venient  instrument  for  quickly  testing  and  comparing  speed  of 
great  differences,  as  the  motor  and  the  generator,  by  simply 
changing  the  driving  point  from  one  to  another  gear  stem. 
These  tachometers  are  made  by  Schaeffer  &  Budenberg 
New  York,  and  may  be  ordered  for  any  range  of  speed,  from 
50  to  500  for  gas  engines  and  from  500  to  2,000  for  generators, 
in  the  same  instrument  or  separate  as  desired. 

The  Indicator  and  Its   Work. 
We  have  selected  among  the  many  good  indicators  in  the 


FIG.  56.— THE  THOMPSON  INDICATOR. 


market  the  one  most  suitable  for  indicating  the  work  of  the 
explosive   engine.      The   Thompson    indicator    as    made    by 


i68 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


Schaeffer  &  Budenberg,  New  York,  and  illustrated  in  Figs.  56 
and  57,  is  a  light  and  sensitive  instrument  with  absolute  recti- 
linear motion  of  the  pencil  with  its  cylinder  and  piston,  made 
of  a  specially  hard  alloy  which  prevents  the  possibility  of  sur~ 


FIG.  57.— SECTION  OF  INDICATOR. 


FIG.  58.— SMALL  PISTOL 


face  abrasion  and  insures  a  uniform  frictionless  motion  of  the 
piston.  It  is  provided  with  an  extra  and  smaller-sized  cylin- 
der and  piston,  suitable  with  a  light  spring  for  testing  the 
suction  and  exhaust  curves  of  explosive  motors,  so  useful  in 
showing  the  condition  and  proportion  of  valve  ports. 

The  large  piston  of  the  standard  size  is  o  798  inch  irt  diam- 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER.  169 

eter  and  equal  to  £  square  inch  area.  The  small  piston  (Fig.  58) 
is  0.590  inch  in  diameter  and  equal  to  o.  274  square  inch  area,  so 
that  a  50  or  60  spring-  may  be  used  in  indicating  explosive  en- 
gines with  the  small  piston,  which  will  give  cards  within  the 
range  of  the  paper  for  low-explosive  pressure  but  full  enough 
to  show  the  variations  in  all  the  lines.  With  the  100  spring 
and  £  inch  area  of  piston  250  Ibs.  pressure  is  about  the  limit 
of  the  card,  but  with  this  size  piston  a  120  or  160  spring  is 
more  generally  used. 

The  pulley  V  is  carried  by  the  swivel  W  and  works  freely 
in  the  post  X ;  it  can  be  locked  in  any  position  by  the  small  set 
screw.  The  swivel  plate  Y  can  be  swung  in  any  direction  in 
its  plane  and  held  firmly  by  the  thumb-screw  Z.  Thus  with 
the  combination  the  cord  can  be  directed  in  all  possible  direc. 
tions.  The  link  A  is  made  as  short  as  possible  with  long 
double  bearings  at  both  ends  to  give  a  firm  and  steady  support 
to  the  lever  B,  making  it  less  liable  to  cause  irregularities  in 
the  diagram  when  indicating  high-speed  motors. 

The  paper  drum  is  made  with  a  closed  top  to  preserve  its 
accurate  cylindrical  form,  and  the  top,  having  a  journal  bearing 
at  U  in  the  centre,  compells  a  true  concentric  movement  to  its 
surface. 

The  spring  E  and  the  spring  case  F  are  secured  to  the  rod 
G  by  screwing  the  case  F  to  a  shoulder  on  G  by  means  of  a 
thumb-screw  H. 

To  adjust  the  tension  of  the  drum  spring,  the  drum  can  be 
easily  removed,  and,  by  holding  on  to  the  spring  case  E  and 
loosening  screw  H,  the  tension  can  readily  be  varied  and  adapted 
to  any  speed,  to  follow  precisely  the  motion  of  the  engine 
piston. 

The  bars  of  the  nut  I  are  made  hollow,  so  as  to  insert  a 
small  short  rod  K,  which  is  a  great  convenience  in  unscrewing 
the  indicator  when  hot. 

The  reducing  pulley  (Fig.  59)  is  a  most  important  adjunct. 
of  the  indicator.  The  revolving  parts  should  be  as  light  as 


I/O  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

possible  and  are  now  made  of  aluminum  for  high-speed  motors 
with  pulleys  proportioned  for  short-stroke  motors.  In  the  use 
of  indicators  for  high-compression  motors  it  is  advisable  to  have 
a  stop-tube  inserted  in  the  cap-piece  that  holds  the  spring  and 
extending  down  and  inside  the  spring  so  as  to  stop  the  motion 
of  the  piston  at  the  limit  of  the  pencil  motion  below  the  top  of 


FIG.  59.— THE  REDUCING  PULLEY. 

the  card.  This  will  prevent  undue  stress  on  the  spring  and 
extreme  throw  of  the  pencil  when  by  misfires  an  unusual  charge 
is  fired.  With  the  smaller  piston  and  the  usual  100  or  1 20  spring 
any  possible  explosive  pressure  may  be  properly  recorded. 

The  proximity  of  the  indicator  to  the  combustion  chamber 
is  of  importance  in  making  a  true  record  of  the  explosive  action 
of  the  combustible  gases  on  the  card.  The  time  of  transmis- 
sion of  the  wave  of  compression  and  expansion  through  a  tube 
of  one,  two,  or  three  feet  in  length  is  quite  noticeable  in  the  dis- 
tortion of  the  diagram.  It  shows  a  delay  in  compression  and 


THE    MEASUREMENT    OF    POWER.  171 

carries  the  expansion  line  over  a  curve  at  the  apex  lower  than 
the  maximum  pressure,  and  by  the  delay  raises  the  expansion 
curve  higher  than  the  actual  expansion  curve  of  the  cylinder. 
An  indicator  for  true  effect  should  have  a  straightway  cock 
screwed  into  the  cylinder. 

Vibration  of  Buildings  and  Floors  by  the  Running  of  Explo- 
sive Motors. 

Since  this  class  of  engines  has  so  largely  superseded  small 
steam  power,  and  the  vast  extension  of  their  use  in  the  upper 
part  of  buildings  due  to  their  economy  for  all  small  powers,  the 
trouble  arising  from  vibration  of  buildings  and  floors  has 
largely  increased. 

The  necessity  for  placing  motive  power  near  its  point  of  ap- 
plication has  resulted  in  locating  gas,  gasoline,  and  oil  engines 
in  light  and  fragile  buildings  and  on  floors  not  capable  of  re- 
sisting the  slightest  synchronal  motion. 

This  subject  has  been  often  brought  to  our  notice  since  the 
advent  of  the  gas  engine  in  the  lead  for  small  powers.  It  is  a 
difficult  question  to  advise  remedies  for  it,  from  the  variety  of 
ways  in  which  the  effect  is  produced.  Synchronism  between 
the  time  vibration  of  a  floor  and  the  number  of  revolutions  of 
the  engine  is  always  a  matter  of  experiment,  and  can  only  be 
ascertained  by  a  trial  in  varying  the  engine  speed  by  uniform 
stages  until  the  vibration  has  become  a  minimum.  Then  if 
the  engine  speed  of  least  vibration  is  an  inconvenient  one  for 
engine  economy,  or  for  the  speed  layout  of  the  machinery 
plant,  a  change  may  be  made  in  the  time  vibration  of  the  floor 
"by  loading  or  bracing.  The  placing  of  a  large  stone  or  iron 
slab  under  a  motor  will  often  modify  the  intensity  of  the 
vibration  by  so  changing  the  synchronism  of  the  floor  and 
engine  as  to  enable  the  proper  speed  to  be  made  with  the  least 
vibration. 

A  vertical  post  under  the  engine  is  of  little  use  unless  it  ex- 
tends to  a  solid  foundation  on  the  ground :  nor  should  a  vertical 


172  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

post  be  placed  between  the  engine  floor  and  floor  beams  abovev 
as  it  only  communicates  the  vibrations  to  an)'  floor  in  unison 
with  the  vibrations  of  the  engine  floor. 

A  system  of  diagonal  posts  extending  from  near  the  centre 
of  a  vibrating-  floor  to  a  point  near  the  walls  or  supporting 
columns  of  the  floors  above  or  below,  or  a  pair  of  iron  sus- 
penders placed  diagonally  from  the  overhead  beams  near  their 
wall  bearings  to  a  point  near  the  location  of  an  engine  and 
strongly  bolted  to  the  floor  beams,  will  greatly  modify  the 
vibration  and  in  many  cases  abate  a  nuisance. 

In  the  installation  of  reciprocating  machinery  on  the  upper 
floors  of  a  building  in  which  the  reciprocating  parts  of  the 
motor,  as  a  horizontal  engine,  are  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
reciprocating  parts  of  the  machines  (as  in  printing  pressrooms) 
the  trouble  from  the  horizontal  vibration  has  been  often  found 
a  serious  one.  It  may  be  somewhat  modified  by  making  the 
number  of  the  strokes  of  the  engine  an  odd  number  of  the 
strokes  of  the  reciprocating-  parts  of  the  machine. 

It  is  well  known  to  engine  builders  that  explosive  motors, 
like  high-speed  steam  engines,  cannot  be  absolutely  balanced, 
but  their  heavy  fly-wheels  and  bases  go  far  toward  it  by  absorp- 
tion, and  the  best  that  can  be  done  with  the  balance  is  to  make 
as  perfect  a  compromise  of  the  values  of  the  longitudinal  and 
lateral  forces  as  possible  by  inequality  in  the  fly-wheel  rims. 

The  jar  caused  by  excessive  explosions  after  misfires  and 
muffler-pot  explosions  is  of  the  unusual  kind  that  cannot  be 
easily  provided  with  a  remedy  where  the  transmitted  power  is 
not  uniform,  for  where  it  is  uniform  there  is  ample  regulation 
from  the  governor  to  make  the  charges  regular,  and  if  the 
igniter  is  well  adjusted  there  should  be  no  cause  for  "kicking," 
as  our  European  cousins  call  it.  A  good  practice  in  setting 
motors  is  to  locate  them  near  a  beam-bearing  wall  or  column 
that  extends  to  the  foundation  of  the  building.  Many  motors 
so  placed  are  found  to  be  free  from  the  nuisance  of  tremor. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
EXPLOSIVE  ENGINE  TESTING. 

FOR  the  reason  that  elaborate  and  complicated  tests  have 
been  made  and  exploited  in  other  works  on  the  gas  engine, 
which  may  be  referred  to  for  the  details  of  expert  work,  the 
author  of  this  work  has  decided  to  reduce  the  practice  of  test- 
ing explosive  motors  to  a  commercial  basis  on  which  purchasers 
can  comprehend  their  value  as  a  business  investment  for  power. 
The  disposition  of  builders  of  explosive  engines  to  follow  the 
economics  in  construction  in  regard  to  least  wall  surface  in  con- 
tact with  the  heat  of  combustion,  and  of  maintaining  the  wall 
surface  at  the  highest  practical  temperature  for  economical 
running  by  the  rapid  circulation  of  warm  water  from  a  tank  or 
cooling  coil,  leaves  but  little  to  accomplish,  save  the  proper  size 
and  adjustment  of  the  valves  and  igniters  for  the  engines,  in 
order  that  they  may  properly  perform  their  functions.  The  in- 
dicator card,  if  made  through  a  series  of  varying  proportions  of 
gas  or  gasoline  and  air  mixtures,  will  show  the  condition  of  the 
adjustments  for  economic  working.  The  difference  between 
the  indicated  power  for  the  gas  used  by  the  card  and  the  power 
delivered  to  the  dynamometer  or  brake  shows  the  mechanical 
efficiency  of  the  engine.  The  best  working  card  of  the  engine 
should  be  a  satisfactory  test  to  a  purchaser  that  the  principles 
of  construction  are  correct.  A  brake-trial  certificate  or  obser- 
vation should  satisfy  as  to  frictional  economy,  and  the  price  and 
quantity  of  gas  per  horse-power  hour  should  settle  the  com- 
parative cost  for  running.  The  variation  in  the  heating 
power  of  illuminating  gas  in  the  various  parts  of  the  United 

States  is  much  less  than  its  variation  in  price.     Producer  gas 

173 


174  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

is  a  specialty  for  local  consumption,  and  its  cost  drops  with  its 
heating  power, 

Apart  from  the  actual  cost  of  gas  in  any  locality  and  the 
quantity  required  per  brake  horse-power,  durability  of  a  motor 
is  one  of  the  principal  items  in  the  purchase  of  power. 

In  the  use  of  gasoline,  kerosene,  and  crude  petroleum  in 
explosive  engines,  their  heating  values  are  uniform  for  each 
kind,  and  as  motors  are  generally  adjusted  for  the  use  of  one 
of  the  above  hydrocarbons  onty,  the  difference  of  cost  be- 
tween these  various  fuels  is  the  best  indication  as  to  the  rela- 
tive cost  of  power. 

No  instruments  have  yet  been  contrived  for  giving  the  tem- 
peratures of  combustion,  either  initial  or  exhaust,  in  an  in- 
ternal combustion  motor ;  for  at  the  proper  working  speed  the 
changes  of  temperature  are  so  rapid  that  no  reliable  observa- 
tion can  be  made  even  with  the  electric  thermostat,  as  has  been 
tried  in  Europe.  The  computed  temperatures  are  unreliable 
and  at  best  only  approximate;  hence  the  indicator  card  be- 
comes the  only  reliable  source  of  information  as  to  the  action 
of  combustion  and  expansion  in  the  cylinder,  as  well  as  to  the 
adjustment  of  the  valves  and  their  proper  action. 

The  temperature  of  combustion  as  indicated  by  the  fuel 
constituents,  and  computed  from  their  known  heat  values,  gives 
at  best  but  misleading  results  as  indicating  the  real  tempera- 
ture of  combustion  in  an  explosive  engine.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  computed  temperatures  could  be  obtained  if  the  con- 
taminating influence  of  the  neutral  elements  that  are  mixed 
with  the  fuel  of  combustion,  as  well  as  the  large  proportion  of 
the  inert  gases  of  previous  explosions,  could  be  excluded  from 
the  cylinder,  when  the  radiation  and  absorption  pf  heat  by 
the  cylinder  would  be  the  only  retarding  influences  in  the  de- 
velopment of  heat  due  to  the  union  of  the  pure  elements  of 
combustion. 

For  obtaining  the  indicated  horse-power  of  a  gas,  gasoline, 
or  oil  engine,  the  mean  effective  pressure  as  shown  by  the  card 


EXPLOSIVE    ENGINE  TESTING. 


175 


may  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  length  of  the  card  into  ten  or 
any  convenient  number  of  parts  vertically,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6 1 
for  a  four-cycle  compression  engine.  For  each  section  meas- 
ure the  average  between  the  curve  of  compression  and  the  curve 
of  expansion  with  a  scale  corresponding  with  the  number  of 
the  indicator  spring.  Add  the  measured  distances  and  divide 


FIG.  61.— FOUR-CYCLE  GAS-ENGINE  CARD. 

by  the  number  of  spaces  for  the  mean  pressure.  With  the 
mean  pressure  multiply  the  area  of  the  cylinder  for  the  gross 
pressure.  If  there  have  been  no  misfires,  then  one-half  the 
number  of  revolutions  multiplied  by  the  stroke  and  by  the  gross 
pressure,  and  the  product  divided  by  33,000  will  give  the 
indicated  horse-power.  If  there  is  any  discrepancy  along 
the  atmospheric  line  by  obstruction  in  the  exhaust  or  sur 
tion  stroke,  the  average  must  be  deducted  from  the  mean 
pressure. 

The  exhaust  valve,  if  too  small  or  with  insufficient  lift,  or 
a  too  small  or  too  long  exhaust  pipe,  will  produce  back  pressure 
on  the  return  line,  which  should  be  deducted  from  the  mean 
pressure.  A  small  inlet  valve  or  too  small  lift,  or  any  obstruc- 
tion to  a  free  entry  of  the  charge,  produces  a  back  pressure  on 
the  outward  or  suction  stroke  and  a  depression  along  the  at- 
mospheric line,  which  must  also  be  deducted  from  the  mean 
pressure. 


176  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  taking  of  an  indicator  card  must  be 
done  when  the  engine  is  running  steady  and  at  full  load.  Dur- 
ing the  moment  that  the  pencil  is  on  the  card  there  should  be 
no  misfires  recorded,  in  order  that  the  card  may  represent  the 
true  indicated  horse-power  of  the  engine.  The  record  -of  the 
-speed  of  the  engine  should  be  taken  at  the  same  time  as  the 
card,  but  the  measurement  of  the  quantity  of  gas  used  cannot 
be  accurately  observed  on  the  dial  of  an  ordinary  gas  meter 
during  the  few  moments'  interval  of  the  card  record  and  speed 
count.  For  the  gas  record,  the  engines  should  be  run  at  least 
five  minutes  at  the  same  speed  and  load  and  an  exact  count  of 
the  explosions  made.  The  misfires  or  rather  mischarges  in  an 
engine  running  with  a  constant  load  are  of  no  importance  in 
the  computation  for  power  because  they  are  properly  caused 
by  overspeed,  and  the  overspeed  and  underspeed  should  make 
a  fair  balance  for  the  average  of  the  run  as  indicated  by  the 
speed  counter. 

The  number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  indicated  by  the  meter  for 
a  few  minutes'  run,  multiplied  by  its  hour  exponent  and  divided 
i>y  the  indicated  power  by  the  card  or  the  actual  horse-power 
by  the  brake,  will  give  the  required  commercial  rating  of  the 
engine  as  to  its  economic  power.  The  difference  as  between 
the  cost  of  gas  for  the  igniter  and  the  cost  of  electric  ignition 
is  too  small  to  be  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  testing  with  gasoline  or  oil  the  detail  of  operation  is  the 
same  as  for  gas,  with  the  only  difference  of  an  exact  measure  of 
the  fluid  actually  consumed  in  an  hour's  run  of  the  engine 
tinder  a  full  load.  The  loading  of  an  engine  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  to  its  full  power  is  not  always  an  easy  matter ;  al- 
though, when  driving  a  large  amount  of  shafting  and  steady- 
running  machines,  a  brake  may  be  conveniently  applied  to  in- 
crease the  work  of  the  engine.  In  trials  with  a  brake  alone,  a 
continual  run  involves  some  difficulties  on  account  of  the  in- 
tense'friction  and  heat  produced,  which  makes  the  brake  power 
vary  considerably  and  cause  a  like  variation  in  the  ignitions. 


EXPLOSIVE   ENGINE   TESTING.  177 

Probably  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  testing  the  power 
of  a  motor  is  by  its  application  to  generate  an  electric  current, 
which,  if  properly  arranged  in  detail,  allows  the  test  trial  to  be 
continued  for  a  length  of  time  and  makes  the  test  a  perfectly 
reliable  one.  For  this  purpose  the  motor  may  be  belted  to  a 
generating  dynamo  of  the  same  or  a  little  higher  rating  than 
that  of  the  motor.  A  short  wiring  system  with  a  volt  and 
ampere  meter  and  a  sufficient  number  of  16  candle-power  lamps 
in  circuit,  *of  a  standard  voltage  and  known  amperage,  will  indi- 
-cate  the  power  generated  in  kilowatts,  to  which  should  be  added 
the  loss  of  efficiency  in  the  dynamo. 

From  this  data  the  actual  horse-power  of  the  motor  may  be 
computed,  which  with  the  fuel  measurement  and  the  speed  of  the 
motor  during  test  trial  is  all  that  is  needed  for  a  commercial  rating. 

In  testing  motors  with  ordinary  illuminating  gas  under  street 
pressure  as  used  for  lighting  purposes,  the  ordinary  meter  meas- 
urement will  be  found  correct,  but  with  natural  or  other  gas  sup- 
plied at  high  pressures  the  pressure  should  be  reduced  by  a  pres- 
sure regulator,  or  by  drawing  the  gas  from  a  properly  weighted 
gas  holder.  A  one-inch  water  pressure  in  a  glass  inverted  siphon 
gives  the  proper  pressure  for  meter  measurement.  The  details 
for  the  finer  tests  of  explosive  motors  have  but  little  commercial 
value  and  require  much  expert  experience  in  the  details  of  such 
tests ;  so  that  for  ordinary  purposes  in  testing  for  best  effect  the 
cylinder  cooling  water  should  be  run  long  enough  and  with  the 
engine  running  at  full  load  to  establish  an  overflow  temperature 
of  175°  Fah.,  which  has  been  found  to  give  a  good  working 
efficiency  in  the  cylinder  temperature.  This  may  be  readily  ob- 
tained by  regulating  the  quantity  of  flowing  water.  Then  the 
actual  measurement  of  the  gas  or  other  fuel  and  its  cost  as  com- 
pared with  the  brake  horse-power  may  be  said  to  give  a  fairly 
just  measure  of  its  fuel  economy.  The  test  of  endurance  is  a 
strictly  mechanical  one  due  to  design  and  quality  of  construction, 
which  may  be  obtained  first  by  inspection  or  detailed  examination 
•of  the  motor,  and  further  from  guarantee  of  the  builder. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

TYPES  OF  THE  EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR. 

The  leading  feature  of  two-cycle  engines  are  essentially  art 
embodiment  of  the  Day  model  as  first  made  in  England,  and 
noted  for  the  absence  of  valves  for  inlet  and  exhaust,  and  for  a 
compression  initial  charge  from  a  closed  crank  chamber,  made  by 
the  impulse  stroke  of  the  piston  and  a  final  compression  and  ex- 
plosion of  the  charge  at  every  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft.  The 
air  and  gas  or  vapor  are  drawn  into  the  crank  chamber  by  the 


FlG.    6lA. — THE  DAY  MODEL. 

action  of  the  piston  and  the  mixture  completed  by  the  motion  of 
the  crank.  From  the  absence  of  cylinder  valves  and  valve  gear 
this  type  of  explosive  engine  has  the  peculiar  advantage  that  it 
can  be  run  in  either  direction  by  merely  starting  it  in  the  direction 
required.  This  type  of  motors  receive  their  charge  and  exhaust 
through  cylinder  ports  at  the  end  of  the  impulse  stroke  of  the 
piston.  In  some  modifications  of  the  Day  model  a  supple- 
mentary exhaust  is  provided  for  by  the  use  of  a  valve  in  the  cyl- 


TYPES   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR. 


1/9 


inder  head  or  near  it,  which  facilitates  the  passage  of  the  fresh 
charge  to  meet  the  ignition  tube  or  electrodes,  and  thus  con- 
tributes to  the  regularity  of  ignition. 

Among  the  many  designs  for  increasing  the  power  of  a  gas 
engine  the  Root  model  for  a  duplex  explosion  seemed  to  be  a  step 
in  the  right  direction.  It  is  a  four-cycle  compression  type  with 
a  secondary  explosion  chamber  and  cylinder  port,  which  is  closed 
by  the  piston  at  about  half  compression  stroke  and  shutting  off 
part  of  the  explosive  mixture,  which  is  exploded  at  about  one- 
third  of  the  impulse  stroke  by  the  heat  of  the  primary  explosion 


FlG.    6lB.— ROOT   ENGINE. 


\ 


in  the  clearance  space  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke.  The  gas 
and  air  mixture  was  injected  through  the  supplementary  cham- 
ber, thus  leaving  a  strong  charge  for  the  secondary  explosion, 
and  so  largely  increasing  the  pressure  during  expansion  of  the 
exploded  charge. 

The  non-vibrating  gasoline  motor  Fig.  61  c  is  of  French 
origin,  but  now  adopted  with  modifications  by  a  number  of  motor 
carriage  builders  for  its  quiet  running.  It  is  of  the  four-cycle 
type  with  the  cylinders  offset  enough  to  allow  of  a  double  crank 
at  1 80°.  The  ignition  adjusted  to  take  place  at  the  same  instant, 


i8o 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


thus  almost  entirely  eliminating  vibration,  or  ignition  may  be 
made  alternately  with  a  two-cycle  effect.  The  radial  ribs  on  the 
motors  of  suitable  size  for  light  vehicles  are  found  efficient  and 


FlG.    6lC. — NON-VIBRATING   MOTOR. 


most  convenient  in  eliminating  one  of  the  troubles  of  explosive 
motor  power — the  water  jacket.  The  Crest  Manufacturing  Co., 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  are  building  motors  similar  to  this  type. 
y  A  compact  gasoline  motor,  rib  jacketed,  and  designed  for  an 
automobile,  Fig.  6iD,  is  of  French  origin.  It  has  a  special 
combustion  chamber  and  attached  valve  chamber  for  facilitating 
ignition  by  tube  or  spark,  the  tube  being  shown  in  the  sketch. 


FlG.    6lD. — GASOLINE  AUTOMOBILE  MOTOR. 

P  is  a  short  platinum  tube  directly  over  the  Bunsen  burner  G 
operated  by  gasoline  vapor  generated  in  the  burner.  H  is  the 
carburetter,  which  receives  its  charge  through  an  automatic  valve 


TYPES   OF   THE   EXPLOSIVE    MOTOR. 


181 


where  it  is  vaporized  by  warm  air  from  over  the  burner.  The 
vapor  charge  with  its  air  mixture  is  drawn  in  through  the  valve 
E.  A  reducing  gear,  cam  and  lever,  operates  the  exhaust  valve, 
and  speed  is  regulated  by  varying  the  charge  of  gasoline  vapor, 
which  is  controlled  by  an  index  cock.  The  crank  end  and  fly- 
wheel are  enclosed  in  a  light  iron  case,  which  holds  the  oil  for 
lubricating  the  journals  and  gearing.  The  other  lettered  parts 
are  self-explanatory. 

We  illustrate  the  special  construction  of  the  Lewis  gas  and 
gasoline  motor  in  Fig.  61  E  and  61  F,  built  by  J.  Thompson  & 


FlG.    6lE.~ LEWIS   MOTOR. 

Sons  Manufacturing  Company,  Beloit,  Wis.  The  principal  fea- 
ture of  this  motor  is  the  addition  of  the  cylinder  port  exhaust  as 
an  auxiliary  to  the  regular  exhaust  valve,  which  is  now  a  con- 
ceded measure  of  economy  in  reduced  exhaust  back  pressure 
and  in  the  saving  of  wear  on  the  exhaust  valve. 

The  vaporizer  is  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  61  F,  which  consists 
of  a  chamber  M,  with  an  air  pipe  A,  by  which  the  mixture  of 
gasoline  and  air  is  regulated  by  drawing  the  air  pipe  to  or  from 
the  surface  of  the  gasoline  constant  level,  which  is  regulated  by 
the  overflow  pipe  at  M.  A  further  regulation  of  the  charge  mix- 
ture is  made  by  the  valve  at  the  right  of  the  vaporizing  chamber. 


182 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


The  gasoline  pump  is  operated  from  the  arm  of  the  exhaust  valve 
lever.    The  igniter  is  of  the  hammer  break  type  and  is  attached  by 


FlG.    6 IF.  — VERTICAL    SECTION. 


a  flange  to  the  side  of  the  inlet  chamber  and  operated  directly  from 
a  snap  cam  on  the  reducing  shaft.  The  governor  limits  the  lift 
of  the  inlet  valve  through  the  arm  on  its  spindle. 


FlG.    6lG. — SECTION,    OIL   CITY   MOTOR. 

In  Fig.  61  G  we  illustrate  in  a  vertical  sectional  view  the  "Oil 
City  Motor,"  built  by  the  Oil  City  Boiler  Works,  Oil  City,  Pa. 


TYPES   OF  THE    EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR. 


183 


An  auxiliary  exhaust  by  a  cylinder  port  is  one  of  the  features 
of  this  four-cycle  motor.  The  gas  inlet  and  atomizing  valve  for 
gasoline,  seen  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder  head,  is  an  annular 
chamber  around  a  perforated  valve  seat,  with  space  between  it 
and  the  final  inlet  valve  for  thorough  vaporization  of  the  gasoline 
and  mixing  with  the  incoming  air.  In  their  smaller  motors  regu- 
lation is  made  by  holding  the  exhaust  valve  open  by  the  governor. 
In  the  large  motors  the  throttling  system  is  used.  Hot  tube  or 
•electric  ignition  as  desired. 

In  Fig.  6 1  H  is  shown  a  horizontal  section  of  the  cylinder 


FlG.   6lH.— THE  VAIVES. 

"head  of  a  motor  designed  by  H.  J.  Perkins,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 
It  is  seen  that  the  fitting  of  the  inlet  valve  casing  is  recessed  on 
its  outside  so  as  to  make  an  annular  gas  chamber  immediately 
behind  the  valve  seat  and  through  which  38  small  holes  are 
drilled  around  the  face  of  the  seat,  thus  making  a  simple  and 
thorough  mixture  of  the  charge  at  the  moment  of  entrance  to 
the  cylinder,  the  air  entering  through  a  side  passage,  as  shown 
by  the  circle  in  the  valve  chamber.  The  motor  is  of  the  four- 
cycle type  and  the  exhaust  valve  governs  by  the  hit-and-miss 
action  from  the  fly-wheel  centrifugal  governor.  The  regulation 


1 84 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


is  by  holding  open  of  the  exhaust  valve  by  a  stop  lever  that 
catches  the  push  rod  when  the  valve  is  open  and  holding  it  until 
released  by  the  governor.  A  single  eccentric  actuates  the  four- 
cycle principle  by  a  pick  blade  that  makes  a  miss  push  at  every 
other  revolution. 

In  Fig.  61  i  are  shown  some  of  the  details  of  the  "Wayne 


FlG.    6l  I. — SECTION,    WAYNE   MOTOR. 


Motor,"  built  by  the  Fort  Wayne  Foundry  and  Machine  Com- 
pany, Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  A  double  cam  on  the  reducing  gear 
shaft  operates  the  exhaust  valve  E  through  a  push  rod  and  lever 
across  the  cylinder  head  and  also  a  supplementary  gas  valve,  in- 
dependent from  the  free  opening  inlet  valve.  The  igniter  of  the 
make-and-break  type  is  operated  by  a  pick  blade  on  the  end  of 
the  firing  rod  which  engages  with  the  arm  of  the  igniter  spindle.. 
The  throw  of  the  firing  rod  is  controlled  by  the  governor. 

The  motors  of  the  Lazier  Gas  Engine  Company,  Buffalo,. 
N.  Y.,  have  a  peculiar  valve  arrangement,  which  we  illustrate  in: 
Figs.  6 1  j,  6 1  K,  6 1  L.  The  design  is  of  the  four-cycle  type,  with, 
the  hit-and-miss  governing  gear,  but  is  peculiar  in  the  fact  that 
its  exhaust  valve  is  the  only  one  mechanically  operated,  and  is 
so  constructed  that  when  the  engine  needs  to  miss  an  explosion 


TYPES   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR.  185 

it  is  held  open,  telescoping  over  the  seat  of  the  air  suction  valve, 
cutting  off  all  fuel  supply  and  allowing  the  piston  to  travel  in  the 
cylinder  without  compensation,  during  which  time  the  valves  re- 


FlG.    6l  J.  — THE   LAZIER   MOTOR. 

main  in  a  state  of  resty/  Fig.  61  j  shows  a  plan  in  section  of  the- 
cylinder,    while    Fig.   6iK    is   a   horizontal   and   vertical    section v 


FlG.    6lK.— SECTION,    VALVES. 

showing  the  valve  mechanism  upon  a  larger  scale.  Fig.  61  L. 
shows  the  position  of  the  valves  during  a  suction  stroke,  the  ad- 
mission valves  a  A,  being  drawn  open  by  suction,  the  explosive 


1 86 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


charge  entering  as  shown  by  the  arrows,  and  the  exhaust  E  being 
seated.  On  the  next  stroke  the  charge  is  compressed ;  the  next  is 
the  explosion  or  working  stroke.  At  the  end  of  the  power 
stroke  the  piston  uncovers  the  automatic  port  in  the  side  of  the 
•cylinder,  which  allows  the  high  terminal  pressure  to  be  reduced, 
thus  permitting  the  main  exhaust  valve  to  open  at  atmospheric 
pressure,  at  which  time  the  piston  sweeps  back,  clearing  the 
residue  gas  from  the  cylinder,  and  is  then  ready  to  take  in  a  new 
mixture  if  governor  permits,  and  on  the  next  the  exhaust  valve  is 
held  open,  allowing  the  products  of  combustion  to  escape.  All 


FlG.    6lL. — INLET  VALVE  OPEN. 

this  time  the  pressure  on  the  cylinder  has  been  greater  than  the 
outside  of  the  admission  valve,  and  there  has  been  no  tendency 
for  the  latter  to  open.  In  fact,  during  the  exhaust  stroke  the 
valve  is  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  61  K,  completely  covering 
the  admission  valve.  When  the  speed  exceeds  the  normal,  the 
exhaust  valve  remains  in  this  position,  so  that  on  the  suction 
stroke  there  is  no  vacuum  created,  the  exhaust  passage  being 
open,  and  even  if  there  were  the  admission  valve  is  effectively 
closed  by  the  telescoping  of  the  exhaust  valve.  Neither  is  there 
any  useless  compression,  the  exhaust  remaining  open  and  the 
valve  remaining  motionless  until  another  admission  is  required. 


TYPES  OF   THE   EXPLOSIVE    MOTOR. 


I87 


The   air   suction   and   fuel   valves   are   mounted   in   a   cage   with 
ground  seats  with  ports  registering  with  openings  in  the  valve 


FlG     6lM.— CYLINDER. 


chamber  proper,  thus  allowing  the  valve  cage  to  be  taken  out 
without  disturbing  the  piping. 

The  gas  engine    of    the  Dudbridge   Iron  Works   Company, 


FlG.    6lN. — VALVE  GEAR. 


Strand,  England,  has  some  peculiarities  worthy  of  record,  and 
which  we  have  illustrated  in  Figs.  61   M,  61   N  and  61  o.     The 


iSS 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


cylinder  is  overhung  and  bolted  to  the  bedpiece  and  made  in  two 
pieces.  The  jacket  and  cylinder-head  are  cast  in  a  single  piece 
and  the  liner  made  of  a  specially  hard  mixture  of  iron  for  wear- 
ing quality  and  easy  replacement  when  worn  out.  The  valve 
casings  are  all  contained  in  the  cylinder-head,  which  is  spherical 
and  water- jacketed.  All  valves  are  contained  in  casings  with 
flanges  and  shoulder  joints,  easily  removed  for  cleaning  or  re- 
pairs. Ignition  is  of  the  hot-tube  type,  as  shown  at  J  I,  and  the 
gas  inlet  is  regulated  by  an  index  cock  at  V  (Fig.  61  o). 


FlG.    6l  O. GOVERNOR. 


The  governor,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  various  illus- 
trations, is  of  the  fly-ball  type,  controlling  the  engine  on  the  hit- 
and-miss  principle. 

The  construction  of  the  valve-gear  may  be  more  readily  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  figures.  All  valves  are  worked  from  the 
reducing-shaft  L,  which  is  driven  from  the  crank-shaft  by  means 
of  helical  gears.  F  and  G  are  air  and  gas  valves  respectively, 
valve  G  opening  directly  into  the  air  inlet  H.  The  exhaust  valve 
E  opens  directly  into  the  exhaust  outlet  O.  The  air  valve  F  is 


TYPES   OF   THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR.  189 

•driven  through  the  lever  /'  by  means  of  the  cam  c.  The  exhaust 
valve  is  controlled  by  the  lever  e  operated  by  the  cam  d.  The 
gas  valve  is  opened  by  means  of  a  small  arm  B  and  the  striker- 
blade  A  attached  to  the  air-lever  arm.  Small  arm  B  also  carries 
a  striker  which  is  met  by  the  striker-arm  A  as  it  moves  toward 
the  cylinder  to  open  the  air-valve.  Arm  B  is  under  control  of  the 
governor  through  the  arm  C,  and  so  connected  that,  as  the  gov- 
ernor rises,  lever  B  is  lifted  and  the  striker  b  is  lifted  out  of  the 
path  of  A.  In  this  manner,  when  the  speed  rises  above  the  limit, 
the  gas  valve  G  is  not  opened,  and  the  cylinder  takes  in  a  charge 
of  pure  air,  thus  missing  impulses  and  developing  less  power. 
The  speed  of  the  engine  may  be  increased  by  putting  on  extra 
weights  as  shown  at  D,  or  the  speed  may  be  decreased  by  re- 
moving weights. 

In  Fig.  6 1  P  is  shown  the  sectional  detail  of  a  vehicle  motor 
lately  brought  out  in  France.  The  engraving  has  been  made  on 
a  scale  of  3-16  inch  to  i  inch,  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  being 
3%  inch,  with  4-inch  stroke.  It  is  rated  at  4  horse-power  at  full 
speed. 

A  novel  arrangement  for  cooling  the  motor  by  means  of  a 
mechanical  ventilator  has  been  adopted,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  features  of  this  motor.  Motors  with  the  ordinary 
type  of  cooling  wings,  of  which  the  De  Dion  is  a  good  example, 
offer  great  advantages  of  simplicity  which  make  them  preferred 
for  the  smaller  powers,  but  unfortunately  they  do  not  always  give 
entire  satisfaction  on  account  of  the  insufficient  cooling  when  the 
vehicle  moves  slowly  and  the  current  of  air  is  small ;  this  is  espe- 
cially noticed  in  hill-climbing.  To  remedy  this  the  motor  runs  a 
small  fan  which  is  mounted  on  ball-bearings  and  consequently 
takes  but  little  power.  It  is  set  in  motion  by  a  friction  roller  in 
contact  with  the  fly-wheel  of  the  motor.  This  ventilator  blows 
a  current  of  air  against  the  motor  cylinder,  and  thus  the  cooling 
is  independent  of  the  speed  of  the  vehicle.  This  motor  drives  by 
a  shifting  belt  on  tight  and  loose  pulleys  with  separate  speed  and 
reversing  gear.  It  is  noticed  that  the  crank  shaft  bearing  is  six 


190 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


times  longer  than  its  diameter,  which  makes  the  balanced  crank 
self-supporting,  the  pin  of  which  carries  freely  a  secondary  gear 
crank  (45)  and  pinion,  gearing  into  a  spur-wheel  on  the  cam 


33 


43 


FlG     6lP.— SECTION    OF   AIR-COOLED   MOTOR. 


Figured  Parts  of  the  Motor.— 12,  Crank-shaft.  13,  Oil-cooling  tube  14,  Oil-duct.  19, 
Pet  cock.  20,  Key.  21,  Washer.  22,  Spring.  23,  Valve-guide.  24,  Admission-valve.  45, 
Valve-seat.  26,  Igniter.  27,  Porcelain,  28,  Exhaust- valve.  29,  Exhaust-valve  seat.  30, 
Exhaust- valve  stem  guide.  31,  Exhaust-valve  stem.  32,  Spring.  33,  Collar.  34,  Exhaust- 
valve  operating  rod.  35,  Cam-roller  controlling  exhaust.  36,  Thumb-screw.  37,  Contact. 
38,  Platinum  contact.  39,  Screw- controlling  platinum  contact.  40,  Distributing-crank  bear- 
ing. 41.  Distributing-gear  wheel.  42,  Distributing  pinion.  43,  Drain-cock.  44,  Waste-pipe. 
45,  Distributing-crank.  46,  Cam-shaft  for  exhaust.  48,  Piston.  49,  Pin  of  piston-rod.  50, 
Oil-groove  in  frame. 


TYPES   OF   THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR.  19! 

shaf^/\46),  which  also  operates  the  electric  current  break  (37-39) 
with  a  jump  spark  igniter  (26).  Oil  is  fed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  into  an  annular  groove  into  which  the  lower  edge  of  the 
piston  dips  at  each  stroke.  The  main  journal  is  oiled  by  the  over- 
flow from  the  annular  groove  and  the  dash  of  the  crank,  through 
the  long  oil  passages  and  the  surplus  returned  to  the  crank  cham- 


FlG.    6lQ. — THE    NASH    GAS   ENGINE. 


ber  from  the  end  of  the  bearing.  A  leather  washer  between  the 
end  of  the  shaft  bearing  and  the  fly-wheel  hub  prevents  waste  of 
oil  and  prevents  entrance  of  dust.  Speed  is  controlled  by  the 
gasoline  feed  through  atomizing  vaporizers,  which  see,  ante. 
This  class  of  motors  makes  an  excellent  study  for  amateur  me- 
chanics. 

The  latest  design  of  the  Nash  gas  motor  in  section  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  61  Q.     It  is  of  the  four-cycle  type,  with  one,  two 


1 92  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

or  three  vertical  cylinders.  The  speed  is  controlled  through  the 
governor  by  missed  charges. 

The  air  chest  surrounds  the  passage  by  which  gas  enters  and 
is  drawn  with  the  air  into  the  mixing  chamber  A.  The  admission 
valve  B  is  open  during  each  suction  stroke  and  the  mixture  passes 
through  that  valve  to  the  cylinder  to  be<  compressed  upon  the 
succeeding  stroke  and  then  exploded.  The  toe  which  lifts  the 
gas  valve  is  carried  upon  the  stem  of  the  admission  valve 
and  is  kept  from  engaging  with  the  latch  upon  the  gas  valve 
stem  when  explosion  is  not  required.  The  admission  is  operated 
by  a  positive  cam  upon  the  side  shaft  in  an  obvious  manner,  and 
the  fact  that  it  is  opened  every  fourth  stroke  insures  an  indraft  of 
fresh  air,  even  when  no  gas  is  admitted,  scavenging  the  cylinder  of 
any  products  of  combustion  remaining.  The  exhaust  valve  is 
similar  to  the  admission  valve,  but  its  roller  can  be  thrown  to  a 
cam,  relieving  the  compression  when  starting  up.  The  igniter  is 
at  /  and  is  operated  by  an  eccentric  upon  a  side  shaft  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  engine,  this  side  shaft  being  operated  by  a  cross 
shaft  geared  to  the  other  side  shaft,  which  in  turn  is  geared  to  the 
main  shaft  with  two-to-one  spur  gears.  The  governor  is  driven 
from  the  first  side  shaft  and  simply  regulates  the  position  of  the 
latch  upon  the  gas  valve  stem. 

The  Diesel  oil  engine  has  come  to  the  front  for  economy  and 
as  a  motor  in  which  any  of  the  fuel  oils  of  commerce  give  most 
satisfactory  results.  It  is  of  German  origin  and  with  the  late 
improvements  obtained  from  American  suggestions  in  design  and 
with  the  modifications  brought  out  from  its  extensive  use  in  Ger- 
many, its  details  have  been  much  simplified,  and  in  the  hands  of 
the  Diesel  Motor  Company  of  America,  whose  office  is  at  No.  n 
Broadway,  New  York  City,  and  factory  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  it 
is  now  taking  the  lead  for  the  larger  powers  and  is  especially 
adapted  for  operating  electric  plants.  It  is  a  two-cycle  type  and 
with  duplex  cylinders  for  driving  electric  generators  brings  the 
variation  in  light  effect  within  one  per  cent.  The  points  of  diflfer- 
•ence  from  other  explosive  motors  are  a  small  clearance  of  about 


TYPES   OF   THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR. 


193 


•seven  per  cent,  of  the  piston  sweep,  high  compression  to  about 
500  pounds  per  square  inch,  sudden^  injection  of  liquid  fuel  at  a 
still  higher  pressure,  and  its  spontaneous  ignition  by  the  heat  of 
compression.  Apparently  there  is  no  sudden  explosion,  but  rather 
a  gradual  combustion  of  the  charge  of  the  sprayed  oil  and  the 
oxygen  of  the  hot  compressed  air  during  part  of  the  stroke.  The 
motor  is  of  the  four-cycle  construction,  operated  on  the  two-cycle 
impulse,  and  is  represented  in  its  essential  parts  in  the  section 
Fig.  6iR.  The  steel  reservoir  T  is  the  high  pressure  air  reserve, 


FlG.    6lR.— THE   DIESEL   ENGINE. 


•supplied  by  an  air  pump  -P,  driven  by  the  motor  through  the 
rocker  arm  y,  while  the  small  pump  q,  also  operated  from  the 
same  arm,  supplies  the  fuel  oil  at  the  required  pressure  to  be  in- 
jected with  the  high  pressure  air  used  for  spraying  the  charge. 
Further  details  are  given  in  the  general  description  of  explosive 
motors.  Also  see  indicator  card,  page  37. 

Of  explosive  motors  of  the  larger  units  now  in  the  market,  we 
detail  in  the  following  table  some  of  their  most  salient  features 
as  a  study  of  the  progress  of  this  class  of  prime  movers  for  large 
power  instalments: 


I94 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


J 

c 

Weight 

X 

o 

JO 

1 

O 

1 

System 

Type 

•  c1  • 

—     i    u£    . 

Builders. 

u 
c 

OH* 

V 

of 

of 

111 

as 

^5« 

5 

'«r 

s 

- 
o> 

a 

Governing. 

Engine. 

iK 

•o 

V 

xs^4 

a 

5 

OH* 

^ 

-. 

fcc  **  S-* 

EH 

fc.  [^ 

5 

1 

O 

8|s 

h 

O 

On 

Struthers.  Wells  & 

Co    (Warren)... 
National  Meter 

21 

24 

180 

300 

20 

Throttling. 

Ver.  2-cyl.,  4  cy. 

75,000 

250 

12,000 

Co.  (Nash).. 
The  Bessemer  Gas 

13  5 

16 

225 

125 

19 

Hit  and  miss. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4  cy.  28,500 

1 

228 

3.6oO 

En".  Co  

13  5 

20 

180 

ICO 

J4 

Throttling. 

Hor.  2  cyl.,  2  cy.  23,000 

1 

2JO 

5,800 

Marinette   Iron 

Wks  (Walrath). 
Ths  Alberger  Co 

'4 

I? 

14 

250 

200 

125 

125 

*3 
21 

Throttling. 
Auto  cut-off. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4  cy.  23.000 
Hor.  2-cyl.,  4  cy.  25,000 

184 

200 

6.600 
7,OOO 

Lazier    Ga*    Eng. 

Co  

15 

21 

160 

50 

20 

Hit  and  miss. 

Hor.  i  -cyl.,  4  cy.   14  coo 

280 

4,000 

National  Meter 

Co.  (Nash)  

9 

II 

270 

5° 

22 

Hit  and  miss. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4  cy.  11,000 

220 

3,6oo 

Westinghouse  Ma- 
chine Co        
Westinghouse  Ma- 
chine Co        .... 

18 
8 

22 

lo 

200 
325 

~ 

21 
21 

Throttling. 
Throttling. 

Ver.  3-cyl.,  4  cy.  95,000 
Ver.  3-cyl  ,  4  cy.  10.500 

* 

8.600 

1,750 
1,150 

A  novelty  in  the  make-up  of  large  vertical  motors  has  been 
adopted  by  Struther,  Wells  &  Co.,  of  Warren,  Pa.,  in  their  ''War- 
ren Motor."  The  connecting  rods  are  made  in  two  parts,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6is,  joined  by  a  heavy  bolted  flange  near  the 


FlG.    6 IS.— THE   TWO-PART   CONNECTING   ROD. 


center  of  the  rod,  which  allows  the  piston  to  be  taken  down 
through  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  for  inspection  and  repairs 
without  disturbing  the  cylinder  head  and  valve  gear,  which  is 
attached  to  the  cvlinder  head. 


TYPES   OF  THE   EXPLOSIVE   MOTOR. 


195 


One  of  the  most  convenient  devices  for  facilitating  the  starting 
of  an  explosive  motor  when  the  load  belt  is  on  the  pulley  is  the 
friction  clutch.  A  side  grip  pulley  clutch  is  detailed  in  section 
in  Fig.  61  T,  which  consists  of  a  carrier  flange  with  a  sleeve  bolted 


•  ENGINE  n.Y  WHEEL 

YINO  METHOD  OF  ATTACHUM  CLUTCH 


FlG.    6lT. — CLUTCH   PULLEY. 


to  the  arms  of  a  fly-wheel,  the  sleeve  acting  as  a  journal  for  the 
pulley.  The  hand  wheel  on  a  spindle  is  free  to  turn  or  be  held  in 
the  hand.  By  pushing  in  the  spindle  the  pulley  is  clutched  by  the 
action  of  the  curved  levers,  which  pinch  the  cap  against  the  pulley 
hub  and  compressing  the  friction  bearings.  They  are  made  by 
the  Whitman  Manufacturing  Company,  Garwood,  N.  J. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 

The  Royal. 

The  Royal  gas  and  gasoline  engine,  made  by  the  Monarch 
Gas  Engine  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  has  been  designed  on 
the  lines  of  experience  in  the  modern  practice  of  gas  engine  build- 


FlG.  6?. — THE   ROYAL  GAS   AND   GASOLINE   ENGINE. 


ing.  The  working  parts  are  well  on  one  side,  a  most  convenient 
arrangement  for  setting  the  engine  close  to  a  wall.  It  is  of  the 
four-cycle  type  with  an  auxiliary  exhaust  from  a  cylinder  port 
opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  its  impulse  stroke.  The  valves 
are  of  the  broad  seat  poppet  type  in  a  vertical  position,  the  ex- 
haust valve  being  operated  by  a  bell  crank  lever  from  a  cam 
on  the  side  rod.  The  gas  or  gasoline  charge  enters  through  a 
number  of  small  holes  in  the  seat  of  the  intake  valve  which  is 
wide  enough  to  entirely  close  the  gas  or  gasoline  inlet  except 
during  the  charging  stroke. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


I97 


The  cylinder  head  is  cast  solid  upon  the  cylinders  and  is 
water  jacketed.  A  hole  in  the  center  of  the  head  receives  the 
igniter  plug,  which  is  ground  to  a  seat  in  the  cylinder  head  and 
fixed  by  bolts.  The  sparking  device  is  of  the  break  or  hammer 
type  with  platinum  contact  points  and  operated  by  a  push  rod 
and  eccentric  pin  on  the  side  rod.  The  governor  is  of  the  fly  ball 


FlG.  63. — CORNELL  VERTICAL 

type  of  high  speed,  driven  by  a  bevel  gear  from  the  side  rod  and 
governs  by  holding  the  exhaust  valve  open  with  a  locking  device. 
The  company  build  this  type  of  motor  in  vertical,  single  and 
double  horizontal  cylinders  and  from  il/2  to  100  horse  power. 

The  Cornell  Motor. 
Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines  of  the  Ellington  Manufacturing 


I98 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


Company,  Quincy,  111.  These  engines  have  been  designated  as 
the  "Cornell/'  and  are  made  in  the  vertical  type  with  single  and 
double  cylinders  as  shown  in  Figs.  63  and  64. 

They  operate  on  the  four-cycle  principle  with  the  cylinder 
fixed  upon  an  enclosed  pedestal  base.  The  valves  are  of  the 
vertical  type  with  a  hit  and  miss  regulation  from  a  centrifugal 
governor  in  the  reducing  spur  gear  which  throws  the  exhaust 
push  rod  roller  off  or  on  to  the  cam  sleeve  on  the  secondary 


FlG.  64  — DOUBLE  CORNELL  PUMPING  PLANT. 


shaft.  Electric  ignition  by  break  contact  in  the  inlet  chamber; 
the  break  arm  being  operated  by  a  small  rock  shaft  and  arm  with 
a  direct  rod  to  an  eccentric  on  the  end  of  the  reducing  gear  shaft. 
They  are  built  in  nine  sizes  from  il/2  to  16  horse  power  with  sin- 
gle cylinder  and  in  six  sizes  with  double  cylinders  from  20  to 
50  horse  power. 

The  New  Era  Gas  Engine 

is  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type  with  a  heavy  and  sub- 
stantial base.  The  valve-gear  shaft  being  driven  by  a  worm 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


I99 


gear  from  the  main  shaft,  insures  a  smooth  and  noiseless  motion. 
The  illustration  (Fig.    66)  on  this   page  has  one   of   the    fly- 


wheels  left  off  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  worm  gear,  which 
is  also  shown  in  Fig.  67  in  detail.     This  method  of  driving  the 


200 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


valve-gear  shaft  is  fast  growing  in  favor,  and  is  now  largely  in. 
use. 

The  valves  are  of  the  poppet  type,  operated  by  cams  on  the 
secondary  shaft,  which  also  drives  the  governor  through  bevel- 


FlG.  67.— THE  WORM  GEAR. 


FIG.   68.— VALVE  CHEST. 


speed  gear.     All  the  valve  chambers  have  flanged  plugs  for 
facilitating  the  removal  and  cleansing  of  the  valves. 

The  end  view  of  the  lateral  shaft  and  valve  chest  with  the- 


FlG.   69.— THE  GOVERNOR. 


attachment  of  the  tube  igniter  is  shown  in  Fig.  68.  The 
electric  igniter  is  applied  at  the  same  opening  in  the  valve 
chest  as  used  for  the  tube  igniter. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  2OI 

The  governor  is  of  the  ball  type,  running  direct  from  the 
secondary  shaft  by  a  bevel  gear,  and  through  a  bell-crank  lever 
and  arm  controls  the  gas-inlet  valve.  Fig.  69  shows  the  ar- 
rangement more  in  detail  and  also  the  great  convenience  in 
gas  engines,  a  cap  plug  for  quickly  removing  the  valve  and  an 
inspection  plug  at  the  side  of  the  valve  chest. 

The  fuel  for  these  engines  may  be  illuminating  gas,  pro- 
ducer gas,  natural  gas,  or  gasoline.  The  cost  for  running  can 
be  gauged  only  by  the  quantity,  say  15  to  20  cubic  feet  illu- 
minating gas  or  one-tenth  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  per  indicated 
horse-power  per  hour. 

In  using  gasoline  a  small  pump  (Fig.  70)  is  attached  to  the 


FIG.   70.— THE  PUMP, 

engine  bed  and  driven  by  a  cam  on  the  lateral  shaft.  The 
pump  draws  from  a  tank  set  in  a  safe  place,  underground  if  pos- 
sible and  draws  a  few  drops  of  gasoline  at  a  stroke,  forcing  it 
into  the  air  chamber,  where  it  is  vaporized  and  mixed  with  the 
incoming  air.  The  surplus,  if  any,  is  returned  to  the  tank, 
These  engines  are  made  in  sizes  from  10  to  50  B.H.P. 

The  Pierce  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

This  engine  is  built  on  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  as 
shown  in  the  illustrations  of  both  sides  of  the  i  to  5  H.P.  engines 
(Figs.  71  and  72).  This  company  also  build  engines  of  6,  8, 
10,  12,  15  and  20  H.P.  These  figures  represent  the  brake  or 
actual  horse-power. 

The  valve  motion  is  taken  from  the  main  shaft  with  spur 
gears  and  secondary  shaft  upon  which  there  is  a  cam  that 


202 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


operates  the  valves  through  a  connecting  rod.  On  the  face  of 
the  cam  is  a  wrist  pin,  carrying  a  connecting  rod,  which  oper- 
ates both  the  governor  and  the  electrical  firing  device. 

The  poppet  valves  never  require  oil ;  they  lift  squarely  from 


their  seats.  They  wear  smooth  and  bright  and  are  easily  un- 
covered for  regrinding  when  necessary.  The  entire  operating 
mechanism  is  in  plain  sight  and  all  wearing  parts  can  be  readily 
examined  and  adjusted  without  removing  or  taking  the  engine 
apart.  The  governor  is  very  simple  and  sensitive.  It  is  com- 
posed of  three  pieces :  a  hardened  steel  finger,  weighted  and 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  203 

held  to  its  proper  position  by  an  adjustable  spring.  The 
weighted  finger  acts  as  an  inverted  pendulum  swung  by  the 
movement  of  the  connecting  rod,  making  a  miss  gas  charge 
when  the  engine  speed  is  too  high.  It  is  adjustable  by  mov- 


ing the  weight  on  the  stem  and  by  a  spiral  spring  and  adjust- 
ing nut.  These  engines  are  built  to  run  with  coal  gas,  natural 
gas,  and  gasoline,  can  be  changed  from  one  fuel  to  another 
with  little  trouble,  and  are  also  made  to  change  while  the  en- 
gine is  running. 

The  electrical  firing  device  is  very  simple.     It  is  composed 


204  GAS»    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

of  two  electrodes,  one  a  flat  piece  of  steel  £  inch  wide  by  f  inch 
long-  and  ^  'inch  thick.  The  other  is  a  piece  of  No.  1 6  wire. 
One  is  insulated  from  the  engine  and  the  other  in  circuit  with 
it.  A  make-and-break  spring  at  the  side  of  engine  (also  in- 
sulated from  the  frame)  forms  the  circuit  when  the  electrodes- 
come  together.  In  parting  the  spark  is  made  which  fires  the 
charge.  The  electrodes  never  corrode,  as  they  clean  them- 
selves every  time  they  pass  each  other,  and  they  will  remain 
clean  until  they  are  worn  out.  A  four-cell  battery  is  used  and 
will  run  these  engines  1,800  hours  without  recharging. 

Cost  of  Operation. — These  engines  run  with  a  consumption 
of  illuminating  gas  of  16  cubic  feet  per  actual  horse-power 
per  hour ;  with  gasoline,  -fa  of  a  gallon  per  actual  horse-power 
per  hour. 

For  the  use  of  gasoline,  a  small  pump  is  attached  to  the 
engine,  which  pumps  the  gasoline  to  a  small  cup  from  a  tank 
placed  underground  or  in  a  safe  place ;  from  the  cup  the  gaso- 
line is  fed  directly  to  the  cylinder  air  inlet.  If  more  gasoline 
is  pumped  than  required,  the  excess  runs  back  to  the  tank ;  o.  74 
gravity  gasoline  is  used. 

The  Charter  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  Charter  is  a  representative  of  one  of  the  earliest  types  of 
American  gas  engines.  It  has  gone  through  its  evolution  of  im- 
provement, and  claims  to  be  a  model  of  simplicity.  It  is  of 
the  four-cycle  compression  type.  It  runs  equally  well  with 
illuminating  gas,  natural  gas,  and  gasoline.  It  is  built  in  nine 
sizes,  from  i£  to  35  B.H.P.  The  cut  (Fig.  73)  represents  five 
sizes,  and  Fig.  74  represents  the  smallest  size,  No.  oo,  which  is 
vertical  and  of  \\  B.H.P.  Both  tube  and  electric- ignition  are 
used  with  these  engines.  In  the  horizontal  engine  the  mix- 
ing chamber  is  attached  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  into 
which  the  gas  or  gasoline  is  injected  by  the  operation  of  the 
small  pump  G  (Fig.  75),  driven  by  a  rod  and  levers  operated 
by  a  cam  on  the  secondary  shaft.  The  nozzle  H  (Fig.  75) 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


205 


projects  upward  so  that  the  indraught  from  the  air  pipe 
N  supplies  the  required  quantity,  while  the  overplus  is  re- 
turned to  the  tank  when  placed  below  the  engine.  When  the 
gasoline  tank  is  placed  above  the  engine  so  that  there  is  a 
gravity  flow  to  the  engine,  the  flow  is  regulated  by  two  valves 


FIG.  73.— THE  CHARTER  GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINE. 

in  the  flow  pipe,  a  throttle  valve  at  the  pump,  and  by  the 
operation  of  the  plunger  of  the  pump,  which  in  this  case  does 
not  force  a  specific  'quantity  of  gasoline,  but  only  opens  the 
way  for  an  instant  of  time  to  a  flow  produced  by  gravity  and 
the  suction  of  the  cylinder.  In  this  arrangement,  any  stop- 
page of  the  engine  other  than  by  closing  the  gasoline  valves 
will  stop  the  flow  of  gasoline  by  the  covering  of  the  pump  ports 
by  the  plunger.  The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type, 
mounted  on  the  pulley,  and  consists  of  two  balls  held  in  ten- 


206 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


sion  by  springs,  which  operate  a  sleeve  on  the  main  shaft 
through  a  bell- crank  movement.  The  movement  of  the  sleeve 
throws  the  injector-rod  roller  on  to  or  off  the  cam  on  the 
secondary  shaft,  thus  making  a  "  hit  or  miss"  injection  from 
the  pump. 

Communication  between  the  mixing  chamber  and  the  cyl- 


FlG.  74.— THE  VERTICAL  CHARTER. 

mder  is  cut  off,  at  the  moment  the  charge  to  the  cylinder  is 
completed  and  compression  commenced,  by  a  gravity-poppet 
valve  at  B  (Fig.  75).  The  operation  of  the  pump  plunger  is 
the  same  for  gas  as  for  gasoline :  the  plunger  only  opening  a 
way  for-  the  flow  of  the  gas  at  the  proper  moment,  and  being 
governed  in  its  operation  the  same  as  when  gasoline  is  used. 
The  exhaust  valve  is  of  the  poppet  type,  operated  by  a  cam  on 
the  secondary  shaft,  the  movement  of  which  also  operates  the 
oil  cup  on  the  cylinder  by  the  levers  and  small-rock  shaft,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  75.  The  detail  of  the  operating  parts  are  well 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


207 


I 

5 

||* 

I1 


RHllii 


ii 


208 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


shown  in  the  skeleton  cuts  of  the  horizontal  and  vertical  en- 
gines (Fig.  76  and  Fig.  77).  A  relief  valve  for  easy  starting 
is  placed  on  the  cylinder  of  No.  2  and  larger  engines.  The 
No.  6  and  No.  7  engines  are  furnished  with  a  perfect  and 
practical  starter.  The  ignition-tube  burner  is  shown  in  the 
•different  illustrations,  consisting  of  a  gas  or  gasoline  jet  in  a 


FIG.   76.— THE  VERTICAL  CHARTER  FOR  GASOLINE. 

perforated  sleeve,  acting  as  a  Bunsen  burner  upon  the  com- 
pression tube  contained  in  the  asbestos-lined  chimney. 

For  electric  ignition  a  pair  of  insulated  electrodes  in  a  plug 
are  screwed  into  the  place  of  the  tube  igniter  and  operated 
by  a  spark  breaker. 

The  Charter  Gasoline  Pumping  Engine. 

Fig.  79  shows  an  engraving  of  the  Charter  gasoline  engine 
-and  pump  combined.  This  combination  was  designed  for  any 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


209 


fcind  of  service  that  piston  pumps  are  capable  of.  It  is  com- 
pactly built,  a  feature  which,  in  places  where  floor  space  is 
valuable,  is  especially  desirable.  It  is  easily  operated.  When 


through  pumping,  nothing  remains  to  do  but  shut  off  the  gaso- 
line. As  no  special  attendant  is  required,  it  is  especially  de- 
sirable for  filling  railroad  tanks,  as  the  station  agent  or  his 


2IO 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


assistant  can  take  care  of  the  engine  and  see  that  the  pumping 
is  done  without  interfering  with  their  regular  duties,  thus  saving 
the  expense  of  employing  a  man  to  go  from  station  to  station 


to  fill  the  tanks.  It  is  a  suitable  pumping  engine  for  hydraulic 
elevators.  The  gears  are  all  machine  cut,  the  pump  cylinder 
is  brass  lined,  and  everything  about  the  engine  and  pump  is 
built  on  the  interchangeable  plan.  The  cut  illustrates  an  en- 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


211 


gine  and  pump  capable  of  delivering-  60  gallons  of  water  per 
minute  against  100  or  200  feet  head,  or  equivalent  pressure. 
It  is  self-contained  and  may  be  set  in  operation  almost  any- 


where. The  pump  gear  is  easily  detached  and  a  pulley  sup- 
plied for  temporary  power  use,  making  this  combination  a  val- 
uable one  for  agricultural  work  and  irrigation. 


212 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


The  Raymond  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. 

These  engines  are  built  in  three  styles.,  all  in  the  vertical  four- 
cycle compression  type.     The  quadruple  engine  (Fig.  80),  in 


which  there  are  two  impulses  during  each  revolution  of  the 
shaft,  are  made  in  three  sizes:  60,  85,  and  100  H.P.  (actual). 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS  213 

The  duplex  (Fig.  81)  with  a  section  view  (Fig.  82),  in  which 
one  impulse  is  made  for  each  revolution,  are  made  in  ten  sizes, 
from  4  to  50  H.P.  (actual). 

The  details  of  construction  are  similar  in  all  the  styles  and 


FIG.  81.— THE  DUPLEX  RAYMOND. 

sizes.  They  are  entirely  enclosed  in  a  base  with  a  vent  pipe  at 
the  back  to  prevent  cushioning  by  the  pistons,  and,  with  the 
large  flange  on  the  front  of  the  base,  are  removable  for  easy 
feed-oil  access  to  the  moving  parts  within. 

The  valves  are  of  the  rotating  type  and  are  operated  di- 
rectly  from  the  crank  shaft  by  a  set  of  bevel  and  spur  gear; 


214 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


they  are  held  to  their  seats  by  spiral  springs  and  are  supplied 
with  steel  ball  bearings.  The  valves  are  lubricated  from  sight 
feed  oil-cups. 

Fig.  82  shows  a  section  of  one  of  the  cylinders  of  a  duplex 


FIG.  82.— SECTION   OF  THE  DUPLEX  RAYMOND. 

with  the  bevel  gear,  secondary  shaft,  and  spur  wheels  of  the 
valve  gear. 

The  governor  is  placed  on  the  fly-wheels,  and  is  of  the  cen- 
trifugal type,  and  regulates  through  piston  valves  the  exact 
amount  of  gas  or  gasoline  mixture  required  for  each  impulse 
to  maintain  a  perfectly  steady  speed  of  engine  under  all  con- 
ditions and  variations  of  load. 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


215 


For  the  use  of  gasoline,  naphtha,  or  light  petroleum  oil,  a 
glass  reservoir  is  placed  on  top  of  the  vaporizer  of  the  capacity 
of  a  half-pint  which  is  connected  to  a  small  pump,  which  in 
turn  is  connected  to  a  gasoline  tank. 

A  return  pipe  connects  the  reservoir  with  the  tank  for  re- 
turn of  the  surplus  gasoline.  The  adjustable  needle  valve, 


FIG.  83.— THE  RAYMOND,  SINGLE  CYLINDER. 

which  governs  the  supply  of  gasoline  necessary  to  give  the  en- 
gine its  required  power  and  steady  motion,  is  in  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  shaft  governor  and  works  automatically. 

The  hot  and  cold  air  valve,  or  air  mixer,  connects  the 
vaporizer  with  a  jacket  around  the  exhaust  pipe,  in  which  the 
air  is  heated  to  more  effectually  vaporize  the  gasoline.  An  ex- 
plosive starter  is  provided  for  the  large  engines. 

Fig.  83  illustrates  the  Raymond  single  cylinder  engine  for 


2l6 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


gas,  gasoline,  or  light  oil,  showing  the  cover  removed  to  expose 
the  valve  gear  and  adjustable  spring  for  tightening  the  rotating 
valve.  It  is  made  in  ten  sizes,  from  i  H.P.  (actual)  to  20  H.P, 
(actual) . 

It  is  claimed  that  an  economy  of  1 2  cubic  feet  of  natural 
gas  per  actual  horse-power  has  been  attained,  and  a  guaranty 
of  15  cubic  feet  per  actual  horse-power  is  made. 

The  Sintz  Gas  Engine. 

This  engine  is  of  the  two-cycle  compression  type,  taking  an 
impulse  at  every  revolution,  yet  it  is  different  from  the  usual 


FIG.   84.— THE  SINTZ  ENGINE. 

action  of  the  ordinary  two-cycle  non-compression  type,  for  it  is- 
a  compression  engine  with  enclosed  crank  and  piston  connec- 
tions, so  that  with  the  up-stroke  of  the  piston  air  is  drawn  into- 
the  crank  casing  and  by  the  return  stroke  the  air  is  slightly 
compressed.  When  the  down-stroke  of  the  piston  nears  the 
terminal,  it  opens  an  exhaust  port  in  one  side  of  the  cylinder, 
and  at  a  little  farther  advance  of  the  piston  opens  an  inlet  port 
on  the  other  side  of  the  cylinder,  through  which  the  compressed 
air  in  the  crank  chamber  rushes  to  charge  the  cylinder,  at  the 
same  time  the  gas  valve  is  opened  by  the  eccentric ;  or  if  gaso- 
line is  used,  the  pump  injects  a  charge  of  gasoline  in  a  fine 
spray  at  the  proper  moment.  By  means  of  a  deflector  on  the 
inlet  side  of  the  piston,  the  incoming  charge  is  thrown  upward 
toward  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  thus  separating  the  discharging 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


217 


products  of  the  previous  explosion  from  the  fresh  charge  and  by 
this  means  obtaining  a  purer  mixture  for  the  next  explosion. 

The  ascension  of  the  piston  gives  a  full  compression  and 
time  for  the  mixture  to  become  uniform  for  ignition  by  tube  or 
electric  igniter.  It  may  be  called  a  valveless  engine,  as  the 
piston  itself  opens  both  the  exhaust  and  inlet  ports.  A  light 
check  valve  only  is  used  to  check  the  return  of  the  air  drawn 
into  the  crank  chamber  by  the  upward  movement  of  the  piston. 

In  Fig.  84  is  represented  the  stationary  Sintz  engine,  front 
and  side  view.  The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type,  lo- 


FIG.  85.— THE  SINTZ  DUPLEX  MARINE  ENGINE. 

cated  in  the  fly-wheel,  where  two  balls  held  by  springs  operate 
through  bell-cranks  the  movement  of  a  sleeve  on  the  main 
shaft  carrying  a  cam,  which  by  the  position  of  the  sleeve  deter- 
mines the  operation  of  the  cam  on  the  gas  valve,  or  on  the 
gasoline  pump  when  gasoline  is  used.  The  cam  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  regulate  the  flow  of  gas  or  gasoline  to  modify  the 
explosive  mixture,  and  not  by  the  entire  suspension  of  an  ex- 
plosion. 

Fig.  85  shows  the  duplex  marine  engine  with  its  reversing 
propeller.  The  reversing  gear  operated  by  the  lever  contains 
all  the  movements  required  for  full  head,  slowing,  dead  centre, 
slow  backing,  and  full  back — one  of  the  neatest  arrangements 
yet  made  for  the  management  of  boats  driven  by  gas  engines. 
Other  arrangements  of  the  reversing  lever  are  made  so  as  to 
place  it  in  the  forward  part  of  the  boat  with  the  steering  gear. 


218 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


A  section  of  the  Sintz  cylinder  (Fig.  86)  shows  somewhat  in 
detail  the  inlet  and  exhaust  ports  with  the  deflector  on  the 
piston  opposite  the  inlet  port.  The  compressed  air  port  in  a 
recess  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  shuts  off  a  portion  of 


FIG.   86.— THE  CYLINDER. 

the  compressed  air  at  the  moment  that  the  inlet  port  opens,  by 
which  means  a  measured  charge  of  fresh  air  is  forced  into  the 
cylinder  at  every  revolution  of  the  shaft.  The  slight  compres- 
sion by  the  down-stroke  of  the  piston  is  sufficient  to  charge 
the  air  chamber  in  the  cylinder  for  an  explosion  charge  by  its 
expansion  through  the  inlet  port  during  the  part  of  the  crank 
revolution  due  to  the  amount  of  port  opening. 

The  electrode  entering  at  the  top  through  the  cylinder 
cover  makes  contact  and  spark  break  by  the  rocking  arm  on  a 
spindle  passing  through  the  side  of  the  cylinder.  The  time 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


2I9 


regulation  is  adjusted  by  the  insulated  screw  electrode,  while 
the  break  arm  is  operated  by  a  connecting  rod  from  the  pump 
arm ;  both  pump  and  breaker  are  operated  by  one  cam. 

In  the  gasoline  stationary  engines  the  required  quantity  of 
gasoline  is  regulated  by  a  needle  valve  operated  by  the  gov- 
ernor, while  in  the  marine  engines  the  needle  valve  is  operated 
by  a  rod  extending  to  the  steering  wheel.  With  the  extension 
of  the  reversing-gear  connection  to  the  steering  wheel  forward, 
all  the  operations  for  running  a  boat  are  managed  by  one  person. 

"Nezv  York"  Kerosene  Marine  Motor. 
Fig.  87  illustrates  a  marine  engine  built  by  the  New  York 


ATER  OUTLET 


FlG.  87. — N.  Y.  KEROSENE   MARINE  MOTOR. 

Kerosene  Oil  Engine  Company,  New  York  City.  This  engine 
is  provided  with  a  combustion  chamber  B,  into  which  kerosene 
is  injected  through  an  atomizer  A.  A  lamp  L  is  used  to  heat 


220 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


the  chamber  B,  preparatory  to  starting.  The  air  inlet  valve  and 
the  exhaust  valve  are  actuated  by  cams  in  the  ordinary  manner 
on  a  secondary  shaft,  the  engine  being  of  the  four-cycle  type. 
The  injection  of  oil  is  accomplished  by  the  pump  D,  actuated  by 


FlG.  83. — MARINE   MOTOR   AND   BASE. 


one  arm  of  a  rock-lever,  which  is  oscillated  by  a  cam  on  the  sec- 
ondary shaft. 

The  charge  of  kerosene  is  regulated  by  the  stroke  of  the 
pump,  which  is  controlled  by  a  lever  in  the  marine  motors  and  by 
a  governor  in  stationary  motors. 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF  ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  221 

The  injection  of  the  oil  is  in  a  very  fine  stream  under  con- 
siderable force  by  which  it  is  atomized  in  the  hot  chamber  B.  The 
How  pipe  lamp  L  is  made  permanent  in  the  stationary  engines 
with  an  air  pressure  combination  for  gas  or  gasoline.  In  the 
r:arine  motors  a  tank  air-pressure  kerosene  torch  is  used  which 
Leats  the  combustion  chamber  ready  for  starting  the  motor  in 
about  five  minutes.  The  clearance  is  so  adjusted  that  the  com- 
pression is  carried  to  85  pounds,  at  which  point  or  just  before 
the  piston  reaches  the  dead  center,  the  charge  of  oil  is  suddenly 
injected  and  vaporized  by  the  heat  of  compression  and  the  walls 
of  the  vaporizing  chamber.  By  the  late  injection  of  the  oil,  pre- 
ignition  is  impossible  and  the  atomizing  of  the  oil  being  instan- 
taneous is  followed  by  its  perfect  vaporization  in  its  mixture 
with  the  hot  air.  The  firing  of  the  charge  of  partially  mixed 
oil  vapor  and  air  is  exact  and  instantaneous  as  to  time  and 
owing  to  the  small  volume  of  the  clearance  space  carries  the 
pressure  up  to  about  190  pounds,  and  by  continuous  combustion 
during  the  impulse  stroke  gives  a  higher  expansion  curve  than  is 
due  to  the  adiabatic  line  and  showing  by  the  indicator  card  a 
mean  effective  pressure  of  74  pounds.  This  exceeds  the  usual 
mean  pressure  in  gas  and  gasoline  explosive  motors.  These 
motors  are  built  in  sizes  of  2,  5,  10,  and  20  h.p.,  with  one,  two  and 
four  cylinders. 

Marine  Gasoline  Engines  of  the  Two-Cycle  Type. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  89  and  following  the  two-cycle  marine 
engines  of  Smalley  Bros.  &  Co.,  Bay  City,  Mich.  The  manufac- 
turers of  these  engines  believe  that  simplicity  in  the  construction 
of  gasoline  engines  of  the  two-cycle  type  can  be  carried  too  far 
and  at  the  expense  of  efficiency,  and  have  therefore  discarded 
the  valveless  type  and  adopted  an  inlet  .valve  to  take  in  the  charge 
at  the  head  of  the  cylinder  and  a  peculiar  arrangement  for  trans- 
ferring the  charge  from  the  crank  case  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder 
through  a  port  in  the  side  of  the  piston  near  its  head. 

This  arrangement   seems  to   insure  the  charge  entering  the 


222  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

cylinder  near   the   igniting  device  and   so   separating  the   fresh 
charge  from  the  products  of  the  previous  explosion. 

A  special  atomizing  device  is  shown  with  a  needle  valve  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  gasoline  with  a  check  valve  on  the  air  pas- 
sage into  the  crank  chamber.  A  lever  operating  on  the  inlet  valve 


FlG.  89. — TWO-CYCLE   MARINE   MOTOR. 

spring  tension  on  top  of  the  cylinder  head,  by  a  wedge  move- 
ment, regulates  the  quantity  of  the  charge.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  charge  passes  through*  the  hollow  part  of  the  piston,  around 
the  pin  bearings  and  through  the  port  d,  and  into  the  passage  e, 
during  a  small  section  of  the  crank  revolution  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  stroke.  This  imparts  warmth  to  the  charge  and  cools  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


223 


piston.     The  speed  of  the  engine  is  controlled  by  the  lever  limit- 
ing the  charge  and  also  by  a  variable  timing  of  the  ignition. 

In  Fig.  893  is  shown  a  section  across  the  crank  shaft,  with  the 


FIG.  8gA. — SECTION,  TWO-CYCLE. 


dotted  port  d,  and  the  inlet  and  outlet  water  ports.  It  will  also 
be  noticed  that  the  cylinder  head  is  of  the  depth  of  the  clearance 
space  and  water  jacketed;  all  good  points  in  an  explosion  motor. 
B  is  the  opening  in  the  crank  chamber  for  the  atomizer. 


224 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


The  motors  of  this  company  are  made  in  single  cylinder  de- 
sign of  i^,  2.y2,  4  and  6  horse  power  and  in  duplex  cylinder 
design  to  twice  the  above  named  power.  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  duplex  motor  the  ignition  gear  for  both  cylinders  is  con- 


Woier&tofc 


FlG.  896. — CROSS   SECTION.  ^ 

'trolled  by  a  single  lever  connecting  the  trip  device  on  each  cylin- 
der, so  that  ignition  takes  place  in  each  cylinder  at  alternate 
strokes  or  half  revolutions  of  the  shaft,  thus  requiring  but  one 

"eccentric  with  a  rock  shaft. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


225 


Fig.  890  shows  the  eccentric  and  igniter  gearing.  The  igniter 
hook  A  is  operated  by  the  eccentric  rod  B,  which  is  attached  to 
the  eccentric  C.  The  sparking  points  or  electrodes  in  the  ignition 
chamber  are  brought  together  and  separated  by  the  action  of 
igniter  hook  A  upon  the  igniter  latch  2  which  is  attached  to  a 
rock  arm,  which  passes  through  the  ignition  chamber  cover  D. 

The  sparking  points  are  easily  accessible,  as  it  is  only  neces- 


FIG.  8gC.— DUPLEX   MARINE  MOTOR. 


sary  to  remove  the  two  screws  when  the  whole  igniter  may  be 
removed  from  the  engine,  and  the  spark  examined  while  holding 
igniter  in  the  hand. 

One  of  the  important  features  of  the  Smalley  engine  is  the 
device  for  changing  the  time  of  ignition.  This  can  be  done  when 
engine  is  running,  by  simply  throwing  the  lever  H  up  or  down, 
and  the  adjustment  is  so  fine  that  the  point  of  ignition  can  be 
varied  to  the  smallest  fraction  of  an  inch. 


226  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL  ENGINES. 


FlG.  8gD. SMALLEY    IGNITION   GEAR. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


227 


The  Webster  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

These   engines   as    now  made  are  improvements  on   the 
Lewis  engine  as  formerly  made.     Fig.  90  represents  the  ver- 


228  GAS,    GASOLINE.     AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

tical  gas  and  gasoline  engine,  with  its  connections  with  the 
gasoline  supply,  cooling  tank,  and  muffler.  The  gasoline  for 
the  burner  runs  by  gravity  from  a  small  tank  on  the  wall.  The 
vertical  engines  are  made  of  2  H.  p.  for  power  and  pumping. 

In  Fig.  9 1  is  represented  the  horizontal  gasoline  engine  of 
this  company.     It  is  of  the  compression  four-cycle  type,  with 


FIG.  QI.— THE   WEBSTER  GAS  ENGINE. 

poppet  valves,  tube  igniter,  gasoline  pump,  and  regulating 
valves  for  both  gasoline  and  air  inlet,  independent  of  the  gov- 
ernor, which  is  of  the  centrifugal  ball  type,  attached  to  the 
main  shaft,  and  operates  a  regulating  cam.  The  reducing 
gear  from  the  main  shaft,  through  a  secondary  shaft,  operates 
the  exhaust  valve  and  gasoline  pump  through  the  lever  across 
the  front  of  the  bed  piece. 

In  operation,  the  air  charge  is  drawn  in  through  the  pipe  and 
regulator  valve  from  the  hollow  bed  piece  and  vaporizing 
chamber  to  the  valve  chest,  the  inlet  valve  opening  by  the  suc- 
tion of  the  piston. 

When  running  light  the  governor  shaft  causes  the  exhaust 
valve  to  miss  its  lift,  as  also  the  gasoline  pump  to  miss  its 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  22Q 

stroke,  and  thus  the  gasoline  supply  is  cut  off  until  released 
by  the  governor.  A  small  lever  serves  to  open  the  exhaust 
valve  and  relieve  the  pressure  in  starting  the  engine. 

A  self-starting  mechanism  is  furnished  for  the  larger  size 
engines,  a  novel  and  simple  arrangement,  consisting  of  a  valve 
screwed  into  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  in  which  is  inserted  an 
ordinary  explosive  match.  By  screwing  the  valve  disc  down 
to  make  tight,  the  head  of  the  match  comes  in  contact  with  the 
seat  of  the  valve,  which  produces  a  flash  and  thus  ignites  the 
charge,  which  has  been  slightly  compressed  by  turning  back 
the  fly-wheel  with  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  hand  the 
operator  turns  the  valve  to  its  seat. 

The  sizes  of  engines  made  by  this  company  are  of  4,  6-J,  10, 
15,  and  20  B.H.P.,  and  adapted  for  the  use  of  gas,  natural  gas, 
and  gasoline. 

The   Springfield  Gas   Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Springfield  Gas  Engine  Company  are  of 
the  four-cycle  compression  type,  adapted  to  the  use  of  illumi- 
nating gas,  natural  gas,  producer  gas,  gasoline  gas,  and  gaso- 
line fluid  by  injection. 

The  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  of  the  poppet  type,  actu- 
ated by  cams  on  a  cross  shaft  over  the  cylinder  head,  the  cross 
shaft  being  driven  by  a  longitudinal  shaft  and  two  pairs  of  bevel 
gears. 

The  cams  Nos.  18  and  19  on  the  cross  shaft  (Fig.  93)  oper- 
ate the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  by  depression  against  in- 
ternal pressure,  the  valves  being  also  held  to  their  seats  by 
springs. 

The  governor  is  of  the  horizontal,  centrifugal  type,  run- 
ning free  on  the  end  of  the  cross  shaft  and  driven  by  a  small 
belt  from  the  main  shaft.  Fig.  93  shows  an  end  view  of  the 
engine  as  fitted  for  gas.  An  air  valve  No.  8  and  the  gas  valve 
No.  35  are  on  a  vertical  spindle,  which  is  operated  by  a  cam, 
rotating  with  the  cross  shaft  and  controlled  in  its  longitudinal 


230 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  231 

motion  by  the  governor,  making  an  off-and-on  charge.  The 
portion  of  air  charge  is  fixed  by  the  set  of  the  air  valve,  and 
ihe  proportion  of  the  gas  charge  is  regulated  by  adjustment  of 


FIG.  <n.—  THE  SPRINGFIELD  GAS  ENGINE-END  VIEW. 


232 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


the  gas  valve,  which  is  set  by  raising  or  lowering  the  gas-inlet 
pipe  No.  6  in  the  mixer  No.  10  by  means  of  the  set-screws 
No.  7. 

For  the  use  of  gasoline  a  small  supply  pump,  driven  from 
a  cam  on  the  longitudinal  shaft,  supplies  the  fluid  to  the  injec- 
tion plunger  with  an  overflow  to  return  the  surplus  to  the  gas- 
oline tank. 

Fig.  94  is  a  side  view  of  the  engine  as  arranged  for  control- 


FlG.  94.— GASOLINE  REGULATOR. 

ling  the  fluid  injection.  The  air-inlet  pipe  is  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  mixing  tank  ;  the  gasoline  pipe  from  the  supply 
pump  enters  at  No.  72.  No.  56  is  the  injector  plunger,  and 
No.  57  the  air- valve  stem. 

With  a  gravity  feed  the   supply  pump  is  dispensed  with. 
Electric  ignition  is  used.     The  device  is  embodied  in  a  flanged 
chamber  bolted  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  as  shown  in  Figs 
93  and  94,  and  the  construction  is  detailed  in  Fig.  95.     The 
upper  electrode  No.  34  vibrates  as  a  current  breaker,  and  is 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 

operated  by  a  snap  cam  and  spring  lever  at  No.  20  in  Fig.  93, 
The  lower  electrode  is  insulated  and  has  a  screw  movement 
for  adjusting  the  separation  of  the  electrodes. 

The  battery  connections  are  made  on  the  head  of  the  cylin- 


FIG.  95.— THE  IGNITER. 

der  at  the  binding  post  82,  and  to  the  insulated  electrode  at  25. 
The  battery  plant  consists  of  four  (more  or  less)  Edison- 
Lelande  cells  in  series,  a  sparking-coil,  and  switch,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  96.  The  sparking-coil  is  more  fully  described  on  page 
75,  in  the  chapter  on  ignition  devices.  The  switch  should 
always  be  turned  off  when  the  engine  is  not  running,  to  save 
battery  waste 


234  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

The '  Springfield  Gas  Engine  Company  builds  eleven  sizes  of 
gas  and  gasoline  engines,  from  i  to  40  B.  H.  p.  Full  details 
for  running  these  engines,  with  reference  and  key  to  the  parts  as 
figured,  are  given  in  their  book  of  instructions. 

The  Foos  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Foos  Company  are  built  in  the  horizon- 
tal and  vertical  styles,  and  of  16  sizes,  from  2*/2  to  100  B.  H.  p. 


,, 


FlG.  96  — THE    FOOS    GAS    ENGINE. 


They  are  all  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  poppet 
valves.  Fig.  97  represents  the  horizontal  engine  as  connected 
for  the  use  of  gasoline. 

The  exhaust  valve  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  cylinder  in 
the  cut  is  lifted  by  a  rock  shaft  and  arms  operated  by  a  C9n- 
necting-rod  inside  of  the  engine  base,  leading  to  a  cam  on  the 
reducing-gear.  The  adjustable  spring  closes  the  exhaust 
valve.  The  regulation  is  made  by  mischarges  of  gas  or  gaso- 
line by  an  interrupter  device  on  the  charge  push-rod  leading 
from  a  cam  on  the  secondary  gear.  The  governor  L  is  of  the 


VARIOUS  TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


235 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

horizontal  centrifugal  type,  driven  by  a  band  from  a  pulley  on 
the  main  shaft.  The  movement  of  the  governor  operates  a 
lever,  which  makes  a  hit-or-miss  contact  between  the  push  rod 
and  the  pump  rod,  as  may  be  traced  by  inspection  of  the  cut 
(Fig.  97). 

When  gas  is  used,  the  pump  is  removed  and  a  lever  attach- 
ment made  in  place  of  the  pump  rod,  which  operates  a  gas 


FIG.  98.— THE  ELECTRODES. 

valve  for  intermittent  discharges  into  the  air-inlet  pipe,  in 
the  same  manner  that  the  gasoline  injection  is  made,  and  con- 
trolled in  the  same  way. 

The  charging  and  exploding  chamber  is  shown  at  B  (Fig. 
97),  and  the  details  of  its  operation  are  shown  in  Fig.  98.  The 
air  is  drawn  in  by  the  suction  of  the  piston  through  the  valve 
shown  at  X  Y,  the  spindle  of  which  passes  through  a  subcham- 
ber  connecting  with  the  air  pipe,  and  is  regulated  in  its  ten- 
sion by  a  spiral  spring  and  adjusting  nut.  The  electrodes  are 
shown  at  D  and  E,  D  being  an  insulated  spring  with  its  bat- 
tery connection  at  D,  and  the  opposite  electrode  is  connected 
to  the  plug  at  S.  The  electrode  E  is  revolved  by  the  oscil- 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  237 

lating  and  sliding  bar  F,  Fig.  97,  one  end  of  which  is  con- 
nected to  an  adjustable  crank  pin  on  the  secondary  gear,  and 
the  other  to  the  crank  of  the  electrode  E.  The  slide  pivot, 
as  observed  near  the  middle  of  the  bar,  enables  the  bar  to 
transmit  a  circular  motion  to  the  electrode  in  an  opposite  di- 
rection from  the  motion  of  the  pin  on  the  secondary  gear 
wheel.  The  time  of  sparking  is  regulated  by  moving  the  driv- 
ing-pin in  its  circumferential  position  by  turning  the  slotted 
plate  K,  in  which  the  pin  is  set.  The  proper  moment  is  at  the 
end  of  the  forward  stroke  of  charge  compression.  A  relief 
valve  G  is  provided  for  relieving  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder 
when  turning  over  the  fly-wheel  for  starting. 

The  speed  of  the  engine  may  also  be  controlled  by  com- 
pressing or  loosening  the  governor  springs,  by  means  of  the 
nuts  at  each  end  of  the  springs. 

The  electric  batteries  are  of  the  Edison-Lelande  type  in 
series. 

The  Dayton  Gas  and   Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Dayton  Gas  Engine  and  Manufacturing 
Company  are  built  in  the  vertical  and  horizontal  style,  and  also 
mounted  as  a  portable  engine  on  a  wagon  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. They  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  the 
valve  chamber  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder  in  the  horizontal 
style,  with  poppet  valves  operated  by  straight-line  push-rods 
from  cams  on  the  secondary  shaft.  The  exhaust-valve  rod 
with  a  back  spring  is  on  one  side,  and  the  admission  valve  with 
a  positive  cam  motion  and  back  spring  is  on  the  other  side  of 
the  valve  chamber,  while  between  is  the  igniter  rod,  also  ope- 
rated by  a  cam — all  having  straight-line  motions.  The  gas  or 
gasoline  valve  is  also  operated  by  a  rod  and  push-point,  which 
is  controlled  by  the  governor. 

The  governor  is  of  the  horizontal,  centrifugal  style, 
mounted  on  the  main  shaft,  adjusted  by  springs,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  engine  speed  is  regulated  by  hit-and-miss 


238  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

charges  of  gas  or  gasoline.  The  ignition  is  electric.  The 
spark  is  produced  by  the  end  of  the  push-rod  passing  an  insu- 
lated stem  in  the  mixing-chamber,  and  made  adjustable  by  a 
movable  collar  and  handle  between  spiral  springs.  The  han- 
dle on  the  igniter  rod  allows  the  electrodes  to  be  readily  cleaned 


FIG.  99.— THE  DAYTON   ENGINE. 

* 

by  vibrating  the  rod.  The  battery  and  sparking-coil  is  simi- 
lar to  those  described  with  other  engines.  A  match  igniter  for 
starting  is  also  provided. 

The  Dayton  is  built  in  eleven'  sizes,  from  2  to  50  H.P.,  and 
arranged  for  using  natural  and  producer  gas,  illuminating 
gas,  and  gasoline. 

The    Victor    Vapor    Engine. 

The  engines  of  Thomas  Kane  &  Co. ,  are  of  the  four-cycle 
compression  type,  with  poppet  valves,  ignition  by  hot  tubes  or 
electric  battery  and  double  sparking-coil 

Fig.  100  is  a  view  of  the  engine  as  fitted  for  gasoline  with 
hot-tube  igniter,  with  one  fly-wheel  off  to  show  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  valve  gear.  A  cam  on  the  secondary  gear  drives 
the  push-rod  lever  of  the  exhaust  valve,  which  is  held  back  by 
a  spiral  spring.  The  governor  is  of  the  horizontal  centrifugal 
type,  revolving  on  the  main  shaft,  and  by  overspeed  carries 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


239 


240  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

the  roller  of  the  push-rod  lever  on  to  the  governor  eccentric, 
holding"  the  exhaust  valve  open. 

The  gasoline  pump  forces  the  gasoline  into  a  small  cup  over 
the  vaporizer,  with  an  overflow  back  to  the  gasoline  tank. 
The  gasoline  is  fed  to  the  vaporizer  by  a  small  valve  and  sight- 
feed  cup,  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  hot  air  drawn  from 
the  exhaust  heater,  which  is  a  casing  placed  around  the  exhaust 
pipe  and  connected  with  the  vaporizer  by  a  side  neck  at  the  top 
of  the  vaporizer. 

Thus  the  gasoline  coming  in  contact  with  the  hot  air  from 
the  heater  on  extended  surfaces  inside  of  the  vaporizer  is  com- 
pletely vaporized  and  mixed  with  the  air  to  saturation  before 
it  enters  the  admission  valve,  which  opens  by  the  suction  of 
the  piston. 

Any  accidental  surplus  of  gasoline  that  may  enter  the  va- 
porizer will  drop  into  an  extension  of  the  vaporizer  below  the 
engine  feed  pipe,  and  flow  back  to  the  gasoline  tank.  An  in- 
dexed regulating  valve  in  the  vapor  pipe  near  the  admission 
valve  serves  to  regulate  the  flow  of  saturated  vapor  to  the  ad- 
mission valve,  where  it  is  mixed  with  a  further  portion  of  air 
drawn  in  by  the  piston  to  make  a  proper  explosive  mixture. 

The  electric  igniter  is  entered  through  the  walls  of  the  ex- 
haust-valve chamber,  which  is  directly  connected  with  the 
inlet- valve  chamber.  It  makes  a  double  spark  by  a  revolving 
mechanism  driven  from  the  secondary  gear  wheel  and  is  ad- 
justable, so  that  a  spark  takes  place,  one  just  before  and  one 
just  after  final  compression — this  being  one  of  the  peculiar  fea- 
tures of  this  engine,  from  which  a  high  efficiency  is  claimed; 
the  other  being  the  thin  cylinder  walls,  as  devised  by  Mr.  Pen- 
nington. 

In  Fig.  1 01  the  same  engine  is  shown  ready  for  gas  connec- 
tion, the  operation  of  which  is  the  same  as  for  gasoline,  as  far 
as  the  valve  action  and  regulation  is  concerned. 

The  sizes  of  the  "Victor"  are  at  present  of  2,  3!,  and  5 

-B.H.P. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


241 


242 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


The    Wolverine  Motor. 

The  engines  of  the  Wolverine  Motor  Works  are  in  the  ver- 
tical style,  for  both  stationary  and  marine  power,  as  also  for 
car-motor  service.  They  are  of  the  two-cycle  and  four-cycle 
compression  type,  with  poppet  and  cylinder  port  valves.  The 
stationary  engines  are  for  gas  or  gasoline  of  any  grade  from 


FIG.  102.— THE  JUNiwK  STATIONARY. 

.63  to  .76  gravity.  The  marine  engines  use  an  injection  of 
gasoline  fluid  into  an  air  chamber,  from  which  the  vapor-and- 
air  mixture  is  drawn  into  the  closed  crrink  chamber  by  the  up- 
ward stroke  of  the  piston. 

The  junior  stationary  engine  (Fig.  102)  is  of  the  four-cycle 
class,  taking  its  charge  of  gas  or  gasoline  by  the  suction  of  the 
piston,  compressing  by  the  upward  stroke,  and  exploding  by  a 
tube  or  electric  igniter.  The  gasoline  pump  as  shown  in  the 
cut  is  operated  by  a  bell-crank  lever  and  roller  running  on  an 
eccentric  on  the  secondary  gear.  The  exhaust  valve  is  ope- 
rated from  a  cam  also  on  the  secondary  gear.  The  speed  is 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  243 

controlled  by  a  simple  governor,  which  consists  of  a  single  bar 
of  steel,  operating  by  the  inertia  of  vibration.  The  junior  is 
made  with  single  cylinders  from  i  to  6  H.  p. ,  and  with  double 
cylinders  of  8  and  i  2  H.  p. 

In  Fig.  103  is  illustrated  the  two-cycle  stationary  motor. 
The  charging- chamber  and  valve  are  located  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  cylinder,  and  the  exhaust  ports  at  the  lower  end  of  the 


FIG.  103.— THE  TWO-CYCLE  STATIONARY. 

stroke  in  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  and  are  uncovered  by  the 
piston  at  near  the  end  of  its  down-stroke.  The  operation  is  as 
follows :  The  up-stroke  of  the  piston  draws  a  charge  of  air  and 
gas  into  the  crank  chamber  of  engine,  the  down-stroke  com- 
presses the  gas  slightly  in  the  base,  and  when  the  piston  is 
near  the  end  of  the  down-stroke  a  port  is  opened  in  the  cylin- 
der head  which  permits  the  compressed  gas  in  the  crank 
chamber  to  pass  through  a  passage  at  the  side  of  the  cylinder 
through  the  open  port  of  the  cylinder  head  into  the  upper  end 
of  the  cylinder.  The  next  up-stroke  of  the  piston  compresses 
the  explosive  gas  mixture,  and  when  the  piston  is  near  the  end 


244  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

of  the  up-stroke  the  charge  of  explosive  gas  is  exploded  by  an 
electric  spark,  which  drives  the  piston  down,  When  the  pis- 
ton is  near  the  end  of  the  down- stroke  it  uncovers  an  annular 
port  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder  which  permits  the  exhaust  to 
escape,  and  immediately  after  the  exhaust  port  opens,  the  port 
in  the  cylinder  head  is  opened,  admitting  a  new  charge,  at  the 
same  time  driving  the  balance  of  the  exploded  charge  out  of 
the  exhaust  port.  This  is  repeated  at  every  revolution. 


FIG.  104.— THE  MARINE  ENGINE. 

The  stationary  engines  are  made  in  sizes  of  f,  i,  2,  and  up 

tO   12  H.P. 

In  Fig.  104  is  illustrated  the  Wolverine  single-cylinder  ma- 
rine engine.  Its  principles  of  action  are  the  same  as  in  the 
stationary  engine,  with  the  addition  of  a  water- circulating 
pump  driven  from  an  eccentric,  through  a  rock  shaft;  a  re- 
versing gear  by  which  the  motion  of  the  engine  is  reversed, 
the  same  as  with  marine  steam  engines.  It  is  reversed  while 
running,  and  requires  no  handling  of  the  fly-wheel  for  reversal. 
It  is  made  in  sizes  of  f ,  i,  2,  4,  and  6  H.P.,  with  boat  shaft  and 
propeller  complete. 


VARIOUS  TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


245 


In  Figs.  105  and  106  are  illustrated  the  double-cylinder  ma- 
rine engines  of  this  company.  The  eccentric  on  this  engine  oper- 
ates the  water  pump  and  exploders  for  both  cylinders,  both  for 
the  forward  and  backward  gear. 


The  generator  is  a  pipe  with  an  open  fitting  containing  an 
air-check  valve  and  a  needle  valve  for  adjusting  the  gasoline 
injection.  The  generator  pipe  leads  to  each  crank  shaft  cham- 
ber, with  a  light  check  to  each  opening  to  prevent  back  draught 
from  one  cylinder  to  the  other  by  the  alternate  strokes  of  the 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES. 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  247 

pistons.  The  down-stroke  of  the  piston  opens  an  exhaust  port 
through  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  and  at  the  same  time  com- 
presses the  explosive  mixture  that  has  been  drawn  in  at  the 
previous  up-stroke  of  the  piston.  A  connection  between  the 
crank  chamber  and  a  valve  chamber  on  top  of  the  cylinder 
head  allows  the  compressed  air-and-vapor  mixture  to  flow 
through  a  piston  valve  into  the  cylinder  at  the  moment  that 
the  pressure  is  relieved  by  the  exhaust.  The  return  up-stroke 
compresses  the  gas  mixture,  which  is  exploded  by  the  trip  of 
the  electric  exploding-device.  By  a  novel  arrangement  of  sector 
and  lever  the  engine  is  reversed. 

The  Fairbanks-Morse   Gas  Engine. 

The  engines  of  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.  are  all  of  the  four- 
cycle compression  type.  The  horizontal  style  is  built  in  eleven 
sizes,  from  3  to  70  B.  H.  P.,  and  the  vertical  style  of  2  B.  H.  p. 
The  design  of  these  engines,  which  is  mostly  based  on  the 
Caldwell-Charter  patents,  has  a  simplicity  of  construction  in 
which  the  least  number  of  moving  parts  has  been  a  leading  fea- 
ture. 

The  valves  are  of  the  poppet  type,  the  exhaust  valve  being 
operated,  by  a  direct  line  push-rod  with  a  roller  contact  with  the 
cam  on  the  secondary  gear ;  the  roller  being  thrown  on  or  off  the 
cam  by  a  bell-crank  arm  moved  by  the  governor. 

The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  type  attached  to  the  fly- 
wheel, counterbalanced  by  spiral  springs  and  made  adjustable 
by  set  nuts. 

To  the  exhaust  valve  push-rod  is  attached  an  arm  that  oper- 
ates the  gas  inlet-valve  in  connection  with  the  air  pipe  extend- 
ing from  the  base  of  the  engine.  The  gas  valve  has  an  index 
valve  to  regulate  the  flow  of  gas. 

A  mixing-chamber  in  the  head  of  the  cylinder  is  insulated 
from  the  combustion  chamber  by  an  inlet-check  valve,  self-oper- 
ating, held  to  its  seat  by  a  spring,  and  entirely  enclosed  within 
the  mixing-chamber  by  the  flanged  projection  from  the  cylinder 
head.  Hot  tube  and  electric  ignition  are  used  as  preferred.  The 


248 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES, 


electrodes  are  located  in  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  with  its- 
sparking  -  device  operated  by  the  exhaust  -  valve  push -rod 
through  a  second  push-rod  and  arms. 


The  engine  as  arranged  for  gas  is  shown  in  Fig.  107. 
The    gasoline    engines     (Figs.     108    and     in)     of    various- 
sizes      represent      the      arrangement      for      gasoline.        They 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


249 


have  a  gasoline  pump  attached  to  the  base  of  the  engine  di- 
rectly under,  and  driven  by  a  crank  pin  on  the  face  of  the  ex- 
haust eccentric.  The  pump  drawing  a  supply  from  a  tank 
placed  in  a  safe  place  below  the  level  of  the  pump,  discharges- 
into  a  small  reservoir  (P  in  Fig.  109,  and  also  shown  in  the  cyl- 
inder heads  of  Figs.  108  and  no),  and  overflows  the  surplus 
back  to  the  tank.  A  small  valve  K  in  the  reservoir  P  regti- 


PIG.   108.— THE  FAIRBANKS-MORSE  GASOLINE  ENGINE,  3  TO  5  H.P. 

lates  the  flow  of  gasoline  to  the  mixing-chamber.  In  the  air 
pipe  is  a  nozzle  leading  to  the  reservoir  P,  and  the  ingoing  air 
draws  from  the  nozzle  the  proper  amount  of  gasoline  to  form 
a  perfectly  combustible  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air. 

Each  suction  of  the  engine  draws  up  fresh  gasoline  from 
the  reservoir  P,  and  always  the  same  quantity,  as  controlled  by 
the  supply  or  throttle  valve  K. 

The  self-starting  devices  are  shown  in  Figs,  in  and  112, 
and  consist  of  a  small  hand  air-pump  for  medium-sized  engines. 


250 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


251 


252  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


Z?1G.  113.— THE  VERTICAL  ENGINE,  SHOWING  RATCHET  CRANK  FOR  STARTING  ENGIN1 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  253 


PlO.  114.— THE  VERTICAL  GEARED  ENGINE  ON  ONE  BASE  FOR  PUMPING  AND  HOISTING 


254  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

and  a  hand  crank  pump  on  the  larger  size  attached  to  the  base 
of  the  engine.  A  small  receptacle  in  the  base  of  the  pump  is 
charged  with  gasoline  of  sufficient  quantity  for  a  single  engine 
charge.  The  operation  of  the  pump  then  charges  the  cylinder, 
and  a  match  exploder  fires  the  charge. 

The  small  vertical  engines  of  this  company  are  illustrated 
in  Figs.  113  and  114,  for  power  and  pumping  purposes. 

The  bearings,  crank,  and  valve  gear  are  enclosed  in 
the  base  and  run  in  an  oil  bath,  so  that  the  piston  and  other 
moving  parts  are  perfectly  lubricated  by  the  dash  of  the 
crank. 

Fig.  113  shows  the  ratchet  crank  for  starting  the  engine, 
and  Fig.  114  shows  the  geared  engine  on  one  base  as  used  for 
pumping  or  hoisting. 


The  Ruger  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

+ 

The  Ruger  gas  and  gasoline  engines  are  built  in  the  verti- 
cal style,  as  in  Fig.  115,  of  i,  2-J,  5,  and  8  B.H.P.  ;  and  in  the 
horizontal  style,  of  TO,  15,  20,  25,  30,  35,  and  50  B.H.P.  They 
are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type ;  are  arranged  for  gas, 
gasoline  vapor  or  liquid,  natural  and  producer  gas.  The  gas 
engines  have  three  poppet  valves  in  two  valve  chambers,  and 
the  gasoline  engines  have  only  two  poppet  valves  in  one 
valve  chamber. 

Any  of  the  valves  can  be  quickly  removed,  cleaned,  and 
replaced  by  the  unscrewing  of  a  plug.  The  adjustments 
are  simple,  and  the  ignition  by  hot  tube  or  electric  spark,  as 
desired.  . 

The  governing  is  accomplished  by  controlling  the  exhaust 
valve;  that  is,  holding  it  open  when  the  speed  is  above  the 
normal.  The  governor  is  located  in  the  secondary  gear,  and 
by  its  centrifugal  action  retards  the  closing  of  the  exhaust 
valve — thus  relieving  the  piston  from  doing  work  by  com- 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  255 


PIG.   115.— THE  RUGER  VERTICAL  GASOLINE   ENGINE. 


PIG.   116.— THE  RUGER  HORIZONTAL  GAS  ENGINE,   15  H.P 


256  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

.pressing  idle   charges  of    air  when   the   engine   is  running 
light. 

The  large  sizes  for  electric  lighting  are  built  double,  with 
impulse  at  every  revolution  of  the  shaft.  For  30  H.P.  and  over, 
a  self-starting  device  is  provided.  The  gasoline  pump  is  driven 
by  an  adjustable  lever  and  rod  operated  from  a  cam  on  the  re- 
•<ducing-gear. 


*    FIG.   117.— THE  RUGER,   10  H.P. 

The  pumping  engines  are  vertical,  and  carry  the  pump  and 
gear  on  the  same  base. 

The  igniting  device  is  hot  tube  or  electric,  as  preferred. 

A  special  starting-device  is  furnished  with  the  large  en- 
gines. 

The  American  Gas  Engine. 

The  American  Gas  Engine  Company  have  the  control  of 
the  American  patents  of  the  Griffin  gas  engines,  and  of  Dick 
Kerr  &  Co.  of  London,  and  Kilmarnock  in  Scotland.  The 
Western  Gas  Construction  Company  are  the  manufacturers  of 
these  engines  in  all  the  patterns  as  made  in  Europe. 

In  Fig.  118  is  illustrated  their  four-cycle  compression  en- 
gine, with  poppet  valves  operated  from  a  longitudinal  cam 
shaft  driven  by  spiral  gear — the  gas  and  air  inlet  entering 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  257 


258 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


liiiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiniiiiiiniiil 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 

through  the  cylinder  head.  The  exhaust  is  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  cylinder ;  its  valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  and  roller 
from  a  cam  on  the  valve-gear  shaft. 

In  Fig.  1 1 9  is  illustrated  the  double-acting  engine  of  this 
company.  It  is  essentially  of  the  Griffin  style  as  made  in  Eu- 
rope, with  an  impulse  on  each  side  of  the  piston.  The  piston 
rod  works  through  a  stuffing-box  in  the  front  end  of  the  cylin- 
der, with  the  connecting-rod  carried  in  a  cross-head  working  in 


FIG.  120.— THE  GRIFFIN  DOUBLE-ACTING  CYLINDER,  TWO-CYCLE  TYPE. 


a  slide  frame,  as  in  ordinary  steam-engine  practice.  All  the 
valves  are  of  the  poppet  type,  operated  by  cams  on  a  single 
cam  shaft,  giving  positive  movement  to  every  working  part. 
Tube  or  electric  ignition. 

A  ball  governor,  operated  by  bevel  gear  from  the  cam  shaft, 
controls  the  gas  inlet  valve  for  both  ends  of  the  cylinder.  The 
timing- valves  are  slide  valves,  also  operated  by  cams  on  the 
cam  shaft,  and  so  arranged  that  the  time  of  ignition  can  be 
adjusted  and  made  uniform  independent  of  the  eccentricities  of 
the  hot  tube. 

In  Fig.  120  is  represented  the  construction  of  the  cylinder 


260 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


of  the  engine  as  made  in  England,  showing  the  water-cooling 
jacket  around  the  piston  rod. 

As  a  double-acting  engine  using  the  fourth  stroke  of  the 
piston  each  way  as  an  impulse  stroke,  it  makes  the  action  of 
the  engine  equivalent  to  a  two-cycle  type  for  steadiness  of  run- 
ning. The  single-acting1  engines  are  made  in  six  sizes,  from 
ij- to  n^  B.H.P.  The  double-acting  engines  are  made  also  in 
six  sizes,  from  4  to  i8£  B.H.P. 

The  Vreeland  Gas  Engine. 

This  engine  is  designed  in  the  four-cycle  compression  type, 
,<rith  the  principal  exhaust  through  ports  in  the  cylinder,  un- 


FIG.   121.— THE  VREELAND  GAS  ENGINE. 

covered  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  the  explosive  stroke.  It 
has  also  a  supplementary  exhaust  valve  in  the  head  of  the  cyl- 
inder for  completing  the  exhaust  by  the  return  stroke.  The 
supplementary  exhaust  valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  across  the 
cylinder  head  and  a  push-rod  moved  by  a  cam  on  the  reducing 
gear. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  261 

The  supplementary  exhaust  valve  has  a  free  communica- 
tion by  a  pipe  with  the  main  exhaust.  Both  the  cylinder  and 
cylinder  head  have  a  water-cooling  circulation.  An  indepen- 
dent push -rod  from  the  gas- valve  stem  to  a  cam  on  the  reduc- 
ing-gear  is  controlled  in  its  motion  by  the  lateral  movement  of 
a  roller,  which  is  actuated  through  a  bell-crank  lever  from  the 
centrifugal  ball  governor.  The  governor  is  on  a  vertical 
spindle  driven  by  a  bevel  gear  attached  to  the  reducing-gear — 
thus  making  a  mischarge  at  the  moment  that  the  speed  ex- 
ceeds the  normal  adjustment  of  the  governor. 

Ignition  is  by  hot  tube  on  top  of  the  combustion  chamber. 

A  relief  cock  at  mid-stroke  facilitates  easy  starting.  These 
engines  are  built  in  seven  sizes,  from  2  to  20  B.H.P. 

The  Backus  Gas  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Backus  Water  Motor  Company  are  built 
in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  styles,  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  123 
and  124.  The  horizontal  engines  are  built  in  fifteen  sizes, 


FIG.    122.— THE  BACKUS  HORIZONTAL  GAS  ENGINE. 

from  5  to  60  B.H.P.  They  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression 
type,  with  the  principal  exhaust  ports  in  the  side  of  the  cylin- 
der opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  the  impulse  stroke. 
They  have  also  a  supplementary  exhaust  valve  in  the  cylinder 
head,  with  its  exhaust  passage  connecting  with  the  main  ex- 


262 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


haust.  The  exhaust  push-rod  is  operated  by  an  eccentric  on 
the  reducing-gear  shaft,  and  carries  a  pendulum  governor  piv- 
oted in  the  square  box  seen  in  the  illustrations  of  the  horizon- 


tal engines  (Figs.  122  and  123).  The  push-blade  of  the  gover- 
nor is  pivoted  in  the  same  box  as  the  pendulum,  with  one  end 
loosely  locked  in  a  Y-extension  of  the  pendulum.  The  adjust- 
ment can  be  made  while  the  engine  is  running,  by  a  small 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  263 

screw  seen  in  the  front  side  of  the  small  box,  which  com- 
presses a  spiral  spring  against  a  lug  extending  upward  from 
the  pendulum  socket.  The  concave  piston  and  cylinder  head 


FlG.  124.— THE  BACKUS  VERTICAL  GAS  ENGINE. 

are  used  in  the  Backus  engines  for  the  greatest  volume  in  the 
combustion  chamber  with  the  least  wall  surface. 

The  Backus  -vertical  engine  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  124,  and  a 
section  in  Fig.  125.  The  valves  are  of  the  poppet  type.  The 
exhaust  valve  has  its  motion  controlled  by  a  cam  on  the  reduc- 


264 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


ing-gear,  while  the  gas  valve  is  governed  by  a  centrifugal  gov- 
ernor in  the  pulley.  The  governing  is  by  limiting  or  shutting 
off  the  gas,  but  the  general  regulation  is  made  by  an  index 
valve.  The  gas  inlet  is  through  the  air-inlet  valve  seat,  so  that 
when  the  engine  stops  the  air  valve  closes  the  gas  inlet  by  the 


~i    ^ 


FlO.  125.— VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  BACKUS  GAS  ENGINE. 


action  of  its  spiral  spring,  which  is  not  shown.  This  is  inde- 
pendent and  automatic,  and  prevents  the  escape  of  gas  by  leav- 
ing the  gas  valve  open. 

The  concave  piston  and  cylinder  head  are  shown  in  the  cut ; 
the  gas  inlet  at  ay  combined  gas-and-air  valve  at  by  and  the  ex- 
haust valve  at  d. 

The  Hartig  Gas  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Hartig  Standard  Gas  Engine  Company 
are  all  made  in  the  vertical  style  for  gas  or  gasoline  vapor. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND   MOTORS. 


265 


from  a  carburetter  that  gives  a  saturated  air-vapor  mixture, 
which  is  not  explosive  until  a  further  admixture  of  air  in  the 
mixing-chamber  of  the  engine  completes  its  explosive  quality. 


FIG.  126.— THE  HARTIG  GAS  ENGINE. 


The  engines  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type ;  ignition 
by  hot  porcelain  tube  or  electric  spark,  and  time  igniter  for  the 
hot  tube.  The  valves  are  of  the  poppet  type.  The  exhaust 


266 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


valve  is  operated  from  a  reducing-spur  gear  by  crank  pm,  rod, 
and  lever.  The  governor  is  of  the  centrifugal  lever  type,  con- 
nected to  a  cam  sleeve  that  has  a  circular  motion  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  balls,  and  a  longitudinal  motion  by  a  spiral  slot  in 


FIG.  127.— THE  HARTIG  PUMPING  ENGINE. 

the  sleeve  moving  over  a  fixed  pin  in  the  main  shaft.  By  this 
means  the  longitudinal  movement  of  the  sleeve  rides  the  push- 
rod  roller  of  the  gas  valve  on  to  or  off  the  cam,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  graduate  the  gas  charges  to  meet  the  speed  emergency. 

The  adjustment  of  the  governor  is  made  by  spiral  springs 
holding  the  balls  in  the  position  for  normal  speed 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  ENGINES  AND  MOTORS. 


267 


The  inlet- valve  stem  carries  a  double  disc.  The  lower  one 
is  proportionally  small  for  the  gas  passage,  while  the  air  is 
drawn  in  between  the  discs,  the  tipper  and  larger  valve  dis- 
charging the  mixture  into  the  explosion  chamber. 

Fig.  126  illustrates  the  power  engine,  which  is  made  in  sev- 
eral sizes,  from  -J  to  8  B.  H.  p. 

Fig.  127  represents  the  pumping  attachment  operated  from 
spur  gear,  all  fixed  complete  on  one  base. 

These  engines  as  observed  run  on  a  consumption  of  from 
1 8  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  the  larger  sizes  to  20  cubic  feet  in  the 
smallest  size  per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  pumping  engines 
are  of  a  capacity  to  force  water  to  the  highest  city  buildings. 

The  Allman  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  Allman  engines  are  built  in  both  the  horizontal  and 
Vertical  style.  The  horizontal  engine  (Fig.  128),  in  several 


FIG.  128.— THE  ALLMAN  GAS  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINE. 


268  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 

sizes  from  2  to  15  B.H.P.,  is  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type, 
mounted  on  a  substantial  iron  base.  The  valves  are  of  the 
poppet  type,  the  exhaust  valve  being  operated  by  a  cam  on  the 
reducing-gear,  and  a  roller  disc  on  a  lever  actuating  a  second 


FIG.  129.— THE  ALLMAN  VERTICAL. 

lever  at  the  valve  stem  through  a  connecting  rod."  The  gov- 
ernor is  a  novel  application  in  its  adaptation  to  both  governing 
and  in  balancing  the  crank  motion. 

The  block  shown  on  the  hub  of  the  fly-wheel  (Fig.  128)  is 
the  frame  plate  of  the  governor,  which  supports  a  radial  pin 
on  which  slides  a  rectangular  block  of  steel,  with  angular 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


269 


grooves  on  each  side,  in  which  the  pins  of  a  yoke  lever  slide 
by  the  centrifugal  action  of  the  steel  block. 

The  other  end  of  the  yoke  lever  has  also  a  yoke  that  strad- 
dles the  sliding-sleeve  on  the  main  shaft,  in  which  are  pins  en- 


FlG.  130.— THE  ALLMAN  VERTICAL,  %  H.P.  ACTUAL. 


tering  a  groove  in  the  sleeve,  and  thus  by  the  centrifugal  ac- 
tion of  the  sliding  steel  block  controls  the  movement  of  the 
sleeve  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  shaft. 

At  the  outer  end  of  the  radial  pin,  a  spiral  spring  adjusted 
by  a  nut  and  check  nut  holds  the  steel  sliding-block  to  the 
proper  position  at  the  normal  speed  of  the  engine.  By  the  ad- 


2/0  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

justment  of  the  tension  of  the  spring,  the  governor  controls 
the  engine  at  any  desired  speed. 

A  second  groove  in  the  sliding-sleeve  operates  a  yoke  lever 
and  bell  crank,  touching  the  gas-valve  stem  with  an  adjusting 
screw — thus  regulating  the  gas  charge  volume  or  cutting  off  as 
required. 

The  vertical  engine,  of  this  company  (Fig.  129)  are  made 
on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  horizontal  type,  and  of  2, 
3,  and  4  B.  H.P. 

The  governor  on  the  vertical  engine  is  of  the  horizontal, 
centrifugal  ball  type,  with  bell-crank  movement  of  a  sleeve  on 
the  main  shaft — the  governor  being  located  in  the  pulley. 

The  lever,  which  is  operated  by  a  groove  in  the  governor 
sleeve,  extends  down  to  and  ending  with  a  roller  disc  that  rides 
on  an  adjustable  wedge,  resting  on  the  arm  of  a  rock  shaft,  the 
opposite  arm  of  which  lifts  the  gas-valve  stem. 

The  range  of  travel  of  the  push-roller  on  the  wedge  is  lim- 
ited by  the  governor,  and  thus  makes  a  variable  charge  of  gas. 

The  smallest  size  vertical  of  f  B.H.P.  (Fig.  130)  are  con- 
structed on  the  same  general  principles  as  the  larger  engines, 
but  with  a  pedestal  and  base  in  one  solid  piece.  The  govern- 
ing is  in  the  same  line  as  described  for  the  larger  vertical  en- 
gines, but  is  applied  to  the  exhaust  valve,  which  is  made  to 
open  partially  or  fully,  or  remain  closed  for  regulating  the 
speed — the  wedge  action  for  the  exhaust  valve  being  the  same 
as  lor  the  gas  charge  in  the  other  engines. 

The  Nash  Gas  Engine. 

The  Nash  engines  are  built  by  the  National  Meter  Com- 
pany. They  are  of  the  vertical  style,  in  nine  sizes  from  \  to 
10  H.P.  with  single  cylinders  ;  and  in  ten  sizes  from  10  to  200 
H.P.  with  double  and  quadruple  cylinders.  The  smaller  en- 
gines are  of  the  two-cycle  compression  type,  taking  an  impulse 
at  every  revolution  in  each  cylinder,  thus  making  the  action  of 


VARIOUS    TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  271 


FIG.    132.— THE  NASH  VERTICAL  ENGINE,  SINGLE  CYLINDER. 


272 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


FlG.  133.— THE  NASH  DOUBLE  CYLINDER  ENGINE,  10  TO  75  H.P.,  SPSCIALTY  FOR 
ELECTRIC  LIGHTING. 

the  double-cylinder  engines  equivalent  to  the  action  of  a  single- 
cylinder  steam  engine  or  an  impulse  at  each  half -revolution  of 
a  single  crank. 

The  double-cylinder  engine  (Fig.  133),  the  single  cylinder 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


273 


with  double  fly-wheel  (Fig.  132),  and  the  sn.all  single  cylinder 
with  one  fly-wheel  (Fig.  134)  represent  the  general  appearance 
of  the  engines  of  this  company.  They  are  all  adapted  for  the 


FIG.   134.— THE  NASH,  SMALL  SIZES. 


use  of  illuminating  gas,  gasoline,  natural  or  producer  gas.     Ig- 
nition is  by  hot  tube  or  the  electric  spark,  as  desired. 

The  larger  engines  have  poppet  valves,  and  are  of  the  four- 
cycle compression  type,  and  are  now  made  in  one-,  two-,  and 
four-cylinder  vertical  style,  with  reducing-gear  and  cam  shaft, 
which  operates  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valve  by  direct-acting 
push-rods  with  back  springs.  The  inlet-valve  push-rods  have 


274 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


bracket  arms  with  pivoted  push-blades  that  regulate  the  gas 
charge  by  the  governor  through  a  rock  shaft  and  levers,  which 
trip  the  push-blade  contact  for  each  gas-inlet  valve. 

This  class  of  two-  and   four-cylinder  engines  is  built  in 


FIG.   135.— SIDE  SECTION  ELEVATION. 

many  sizes,  ranging  up  to  200  B.H.P.,  with  multipolar  genera- 
tors on  the  same  base  for  electric  lighting.  Also  combination 
pumping  engines  on  a  single  base  for  deep  wells ;  also  combi- 
nation engines  and  air  compressors  adapted  to  any  required  air 
pressure. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


275 


Some  of  the  smaller  Nash  engines  and  the  small  pumping 
engines  are  provided  with  piston  valves.  In  the  two-cycle  en- 
gines a  combustion  chamber  is  formed  in  the  head  of  the  cyl- 


FlG.   136.— END  SECTION  ELEVATION. 

inder,  as  seen  in  the  sections  (Figs.  135  and  136)  into  which 
the  supply  port  and  inlet  valve  opens.  The  lower  end  of  the 
cylinder  opens  into  a  closed  crank  chamber,  into  which  the  gas- 
and-air  mixture  is  drawn  by  the  upward  motion  of  the  piston, 
through  the  mixing  valve  not  shown. 


2/6  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   KNGINLS. 

It  is  a  special  feature  of  the  Nash  system  that  the  engine  and 
dynamo  are  not  rigidly  connected,  but  the  coupling  operates  as 
a  regulating  device  to  correct  any  tendency  of  the  dynamo  to 


FlG.  137. — NASH   FOUR-CYCLE    VERTICAL,    SINGLE-CYLINDER    GAS  ENGINE. 

follow  the  engine  in  such  variations  in  speed  as  occur  during  a 
cycle,  or  through  changes  in  the  load.  So  thoroughly  is  this 
compensation  effected,  that  the  generator  maintains  a  practically 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


277 


unvarying  speed,  and  therefore  produces  a  light  so  steady  that 
the  eye  is  unable  to  detect  any  flickering  in  the  lamps,  while  the 
fluctuations  of  the  voltmeter  are  almost  imperceptible  in  ordinary 
working,  and  are  insignificant  under  changing  loads,  even  when 


FlG.   138. — FOUR-CYCLE   VERTICAL. 


operating  an  elevator  in  connection  with  the  lighting.  Regula- 
tion so  fine  as  this,  and  so  essential  to  a  commercially  successful 
electric  lighting  system,  is,  we  believe,  unapproached  by  any 
other  system  of  gas  engine  combination. 


278 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


The  advantages  of  direct-connected  plants,  such  as  simplicity, 
absence   of    belts,    and    compactness,    permitting   installation    in 


w:  Q 

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c  < 

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limited  space,  are  all  now  so  generally  appreciated  that  this  type 
has  become  the  favorite  form. 

The  principal  difficulty  met  in  producing  a  satisfactory  direct- 
connected  electric  lighting  plant,  operated  by  a  gas  or  gasoline 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  2/Q 

engine,  has  been  to  secure  the  requisite  close  regulation  in  speed 
of  both  engine  and  dynamo,  without  sacrifice  of  economy  or  dura- 
bility. To  explain  how  this  has  been  accomplished,  it  may  be 
said  that,  for  the  sake  of  economy  and  other  advantages,  the  Beau 
de  Rochas  system,  or  four-stroke  cycle,  and  governed  by  the 
principle  of  missed  ignitions  has  proved  most  successful.  An 
experience  of  some  fourteen  years  in  the  design  and  construction 
of  gas  engines,  over  a  large  range  of  sizes,  has  shown  this  method 
to  be  the  most  economical  in  gas  consumption,  especially  at 
partial  loads,  anywhere  from  no  load  to  full  capacity,  and  that  it 
is  the  best,  all  things  considered. 

The  Prouty  Electro-Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  The  Prouty  Company  are  built  in  the  vertical 
style,  from  5  H.  p.  upward.  It  is  designed  for  stationary  and 
road-wagon  service,  and  for  this  last  purpose  the  water-cool- 
ing arrangement  is  a  departure  from  the  practice  in  other  en- 
gines, by  the  use  of  a  small  metal  tank  placed  directly  over 
the  cylinder,  as  shown  in  the  cut  (Fig.  141).  By  the  quick  and 
direct  circulation,  the  evaporation  of  the  warm  water  and  radia- 
tion of  the  tank  surface  are  sufficient  to  keep  the  cylinder  walls 
at  the  proper  temperature. 

The  engines  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  using 
poppet  valves  with  electric  ignition  by  contact  points,  operated 
from  a  cam  on  the  reducing-gear  shaft. 

Primary  or  storage  batteries  are  used.  The  governor  is  lo- 
cated on  a  disc  attached  to  the  reducing  shaft. 

A  gasoline  pump,  on  the  level  with  the  tank  at  the  left  in 
the  cut,  is  driven  by  a  cam  on  the  governor  shaft  and  con- 
trolled by  the  governor.  The  gasoline  is  thus  discharged  in 
regulated  quantity  against  the  bottom  of  the  intake  valve;  its 
opening  is  automatically  closed,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility 
of  spilling  or  discharge  from  the  air  inlet  by  the  jarring  or  tip- 
ping of  a  wagon  or  carriage  which  the  engine  is  driving.  The 
pump  has  a  positive  throw  controlled  by  the  governor,  which 


280 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


itself  is  not  influenced  by  the  jostling1  of  a  vehicle.  The  design 
of  this  engine  was  in  view  of  its  adaptation  for  driving  road 
and  traction  wagons.  It  is  also  built  for  stationary  power. 


FlG.  141. —THE  PROUTY   ELECTRO-GASOLINE  ENGINE. 

A  peculiar  muffler  made  by  this  company  gives*  a  silent  dis- 
charge of  the  exhaust  so  desirable  in  road  and  street  motors. 

Ignition  by  spark  takes  place  in  the  inlet  throat,  between 
the  valve  chamber  and  cylinder,  and  at  such  time  as  to  avoid 
the  jar  from  sudden  explosion  at  the  exact  end  of  the  stroke  of 
the  piston. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


28l 


The  Lambert  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  built  by  the  Lambert  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine 
Company  are  all  of  the  horizontal  four-cycle  type.     They  are 


FIG.  142.— THE  LAMBERT  ENGINE,  FRONT    END  VIEW. 

scheduled  in  fifteen  sizes,  from  i  to  40  B.  H.  p.     The  valves  are 
all  of  the  poppet  type  and  are  operated  by  a  secondary  shaft  and 


-TTT- 


FIG.   143.— EXHAUST  VALVE  BOX,  WATER   HEAD  OFF. 

worm  reducing-gear.  The  exhaust  valve  is  opened  by  a  lever 
across  and  under  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  the  lever  having  a 
roller  riding  against  a  cam  on  the  secondary  shaft.  The  ex- 


282 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


haust  chamber  (Fig.  143)  has  a  water  circulation  through  a 
jacket,  and  the  cylinder  head  is  also  jacketed  and  connected, 
so  that  there  can  be  no  leak  into  the  cylinder  from  the  water 
circulation. 

In  Fig.  144  is  shown  the  left  side  with  the  valve  gear  and 


location  of  the  governor,  which  is  driven  by  a  bevel  gear  on 
the  secondary  shaft. 

In  Fig.  145  is  shown  the  detailed  end  view  of  the  engine; 
the  bell-crank  lever  that  operated  the  gas-inlet  valve  from  a 
cam  on  the  secondary  shaft,  as  also  the  sparking-cam  o  at  the 
end  of  the  shaft. 


VARIOUS  TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


283 


The  spark-breaker  and  electrode  are  fixed  on  a  small-eared 
flange  bolted  to  the  cylinder  head,  through  which  a  rock  shaft 
and  insulated  electrode  pass.  One  arm  of  the  rock  shaft 
presses  the  electrode  on  the  inside,  while  the  outside  arm  is 
attached  to  a  connecting  rod,  operated  by  the  spring  lever  z 
and  cam  block  k,  which  is  adjustable.  The  amount  of  pres- 


FlG.   145.— THE  LAMBERT  VALVE  AND  IGNITION  GEAR. 

sure  of  the  inside  arm  is  adjusted  by  the  nuts  x  and  y  on  the 
connecting  rod. 

In  Fig.  146  is  shown  the  electric  battery,  sparking-coil,  and 
wiring,  in  which  H  and  G  are  the  binding  posts  on  the  valve 
chamber  and  insulated  electrode.  A  relief  cock  is  furnished 
for  starting  these  engines. 

In  Fig.  147  is  shown  the  gas  regulator  used  with  the  Lam- 
bert engines — a  most  useful  adjunct  where  the  gas  pressure  is 
not  uniform.  A  priming-cup  for  starting  the  gasoline  engines 
and  a  gasoline  pump  operated  by  the  cam  shaft  is  not  shown  in 
the  cuts. 


284 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


The  "Leaflet"  of  directions  issued  by  the  Lambert  Com- 
pany is  an  excellent  guide  to  the  operator  of  a  gas  or  gasoline 


engine,  and  gives  special  directions  for  observing  the  internal 
action  of  the  engine  by  the  sounds  to  the  ear. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  285 

The  Columbus  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

We  illustrate  a  general  view  of  the  gear  side  of  this  engine  in 
Fig.  148  and  the  details  of  its  leading  parts  in  Figs.  149  to  152. 


It  is  built  by  the  Columbus  Machine  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio.     In 
the  details,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  cuts,  the  design  has  been 


286 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


toward  the  fewest  parts  that  will  give  efficiency,  ready  adjust- 
ment and  renewal  of  vital  wearing  parts,  together  with  a  gas  and 
gasoline  attachment  that  allows  of  interchange  of  fuel  elements 
without  stopping  the  engine,  if  necessary. 

It  has  a  supplementary  exhaust  through  a  port  in  the  cylinder, 
opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  its  stroke,  which  has  been 
shown  to  be  a  great  relief  to  the  work  and  wear  of  the  exhaust 
valve,  as  by  this  exhaust  arrangement  the  exhaust  valve  opening 
follows  the  piston  port  opening.  The  governor  controls  the  gas 


FlG.    149. — VALVE    GEAR. 


and  air  charge  by  holding  or  throttling  the  inlet  duplex  valve, 
the  lower  section  around  the  spindle  being  a  gas  chamber  fed  by 
the  pipe  y,  Fig.  151,  while  the  annular  chamber  reodves  the  air 
through  a  side  inlet,  the  mixture  taking  place  between  the  two 
valves.  The  spindle  of  the  gas  valve  is  hollow,  through  which 
the  spindle  of  the  inlet  valve  passes  beyond  the  spring  block  x,  at 
b,  so  that  the  cam  operated  lever  opens  the  inlet  valve  first  and 
wider  than  the  gas  valve.  Both  valves  are  fitted  and  seated  in 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND   MOTORS. 


287 


removable  cases ;  the  cylinder  and  head  being  cast  in  a  single 
piece.     The  hole  through  the  cylinder  head  serves  the  work  of 


FlG.   ISO. — VERTICAL    SECTION    OF    CYLINDER. 

boring  the  cylinder,  and  to  receive  the  ignite.r  device,  which  is  a 
contact  break  with  a  wiping  motion,  which  prevents  fouling  of  the 
electrodes. 


FlG.  151. — VALVE   CASES. 


FlG.   152. — GASOLINE   ATTACHMENT. 


In  Fig.  152  is  a  section  of  the  gasoline  attachment  consisting 
of  a  constant  level  chamber  f,  an  inlet  pipe  g,  overflow  exit  e,  a 


288  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

small  needle  valve  s,  and  tube  b,  discharging  into  the  air-mixing 
chamber  it. 

The  engines  are  fitted  with  tube  igniters  when  preferred ; 
otherwise  the  break  contact  is  recommended,  it  being  so  placed 
as  shown  in  the  cylinder  section  that  the  fresh  charge  is  drawn 
against  it  and  thus  keeps  it  comparatively  cool.  These  motors 
are  very  quiet  and  smooth  running  and  are  simple  in  all  their 
details.  They  are  now  built  in  eleven  sizes  from  5  to  60  horse 
power. 

The  Daimler  Motors. 

The  Daimler  Motor  Company,  manufacturers  of  stationary 
gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene  motors,  and  gasoline  motors  for 
boats,  carriages,  street-railway  cars,  fire  engines,  and  portable 
electric  lighting,  are  the  sole  owners  of  the  United  States  and 
Canadian  patents  of  Gottlieb  Daimler,  of  Canstadt,  Germany. 

Their  motors  are  all  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  fol- 
lowing the  principles  formulated  by  M.  Beau  de  Rochas,  and 
carried  out  practically  by  Otto  and  Daimler  in  Germany,  and 
now  made  by  this  company  with  many  improvements  derived 
from  experience.  All  the  valves  are  of  the  poppet  style,  closing 
automatically  with  springs.  In  the  earlier  engines  and  those 
of  the  duplex  style  with  a  single  crank,  the  governing  was 
made  by  a  miss  in  the  push-rod  blade  on  the  exhaust-valve 
stem  by  which  the  exhaust  valve  remained  closed  through  a 
single  cycle  or  more,  as  required  by  the  action  of  the  governor 
— the  governor  being  of  the  horizontal  centrifugal  style,  located 
in  the  pulley  on  the  main  shaft  or  in  the  fly-wheel  when  an  outside 
fly-wheel  is  used. 

The  operation  of  the  governor  is  transferred  through  a 
grooved  sleeve  to  the  lateral  arm  of  a  bell-crank  push-blade  on 
the  push-rod  of  each  cylinder,  by  a  vertical  pivoted  lever  carry- 
ing a  stop-block,  which  is  thrown  out  and  into  contact  with 
the  arm  of  the  bell-crank  push-blades,  and  makes  a  miss-open- 
ing of  the  exhaust  valve,  as  shown  in  the  duplex  motor  (Rig. 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  289 


FlG.  155.— THE    DAIMLER  GASOLINE    ENGINE,  WITH    CARBURETTER   AND    TANK  READY 

FOR  RUNNING. 

A,  carburetter  ;  B,  supply  reservoir  for  burner,  regulated  by  the  valve  F\  D,  the 
burner ;  C,  the  platinum  ignition  tube  ;  H^  the  regulating  valve  for  the  mixture  from 
the  carburetter  and  free  air  ;  /,  gasoline  supply  tank  for  carburetter  ;  (?,  exhaust  pipe, 
with  air  jacket  for  supplying  warm  air  to  the  carburetter. 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


FlG.  156.— THE  DAIMLER  TWO-CYLINDER  GAS  ENGINE. 

Showing  the  burners  Z>,  D;  platinum  igniters  C,  C;  the  gas  flow  pipe  R;  and  regu- 
lating valve  H :  and  the  exhaust  valve-gear  with  regulating  stop-block  and  governor 
rod  operated  by  the  governor  located  in  the  pulley ;  N*  the  free-air  inlet ;  /%  th* 
regulating  cock  for  the  Bunsen  burners. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  2QI 

156),  and  also  in  the  single-cylinder  motor  (Fig.  155).  By  this 
arrangement  the  movement  of  the  piston,  with  the  exhaust  valve 
closed,  simply  compresses  and  recompresses  the  burned  gases, 
and  allowing  no  fresh  charge  to  enter  the  cylinder  until  by  the 
return  to  normal  speed  the  governor  allows  the  push-blades  to 
act  on  the  exhaust-valve  spindle. 

The  ingenious  mechanism  by  which  the  alternating  motion 
of  the  valve  is  secured  without  the  use  of  gearing  for  both  the 
double  and  single  cylinders  is  worthy  of  notice.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  reducing-gear  and  its  noise  have  a  substitute  in 
the  eccentric  double  continuous  groove,  in  which  sliding-pin 
blocks  perform  the  operation  of  a  single  eccentric  for  each  cyl- 
inder. The  pin-blocks  and  push-rods  being  off  from  a  radial 
line,  allow  the  blocks  to  cross  successively  the  intersection  of  the 
eccentric  groove. 

In  the  new  style  of  motors  of  this  company  the  adaptation  to 
the  most  ready  fuel  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
(kerosene),  has  made  this  style  of  motor  a  most  desirable  one 
for  the  foreign  trade  as  well  as  a  most  economical  one  for  home 
use. 

The  Olds  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  164  the  latest  design  of  gas  and  gaso- 
line engines  built  by  P.  F.  Olds  &  Son.  These  engines  are 
of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  poppet  valves  larger 
than  the  usual  size  to  facilitate  the  exhaust  and  charge,  and  to 
avoid  the  counterpressures  usual  with  small-sized  valves. 

The  valve  gear  is  a  simple  eccentric  on  the  main  shaft  con- 
nected by  a  rod  to  a  slide  bar,  moving  in  a  bracketed  box  at  the 
side  of  the  cylinder.  The  slide  bar  carries  a  revolving  alter- 
nating or  toothed  wheel,  the  alternating  motion  of  which  is 
governed  by  a  pendulum  swinging  upon  a  concentric  pivot. 

The  ratchet  and  toothed  wheel  are  pivoted  to  the  slide,  and 
the  teeth  become  push-pins  to  the  spindle  of  the  exhaust  valve, 
and  are  made  to  open  the  exhaust  regularly  at  normal  speed 
.and  make  a  miss  by  throwing  the  notch  in  the  wheel  opposite 


292 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


V.; 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


293 


the  spindle  when  the  speed  is  above  the  normal.  By  throwing 
out  the  pawl  which  operates  the  alternating-  wheel,  compression 
will  be  omitted  by  the  open  exhaust,  and  the  engine  can  be 


easily  turned  to  any  point  for  starting  without  the  resistance 
of  compression. 

The  inlet  valve  is  opposite  and  in  line  with  the  exhaust  valve, 
and  is  opened  by  the  suction  of  the  piston.  The  vaporizing 
chamber  for  gasoline  is  in  front  of  the  cylinder  head,  and  re- 
ceives near  its  bottom  the  air  pipe  from  the  engine-bed  frame. 

When  running  with  gasoline,  a  small  pump  is  operated  by 


294  GAS»    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  eccentric  rod,  which  supplies  a  small  reservoir  over  the  inlet 
valve,  arranged  so  that  the  surplus  runs  back  to  the  reservoir 
below  the  level  of  the  pump,  thus  avoiding  the  possibility  of 
accidental  overflow  of  gasoline.  On  the  top  of  the  reservoir  is 
a  sight  glass  that  shows  the  flow  of  the  gasoline,  with  a  set 
valve  to  regulate  the  feed  to  the  mixing-chamber,  where  it  is 
atomized  by  the  inrush  of  air  to  the  cylinder  during  the  charg- 
ing stroke. 

The  igniter  is  by  hot  tube  or  electric,  preferably  a  hot  tube, 
with  some  special  improvements  that  make  this  style  of  igni- 
tion very  desirable.  The  igniters  are  not  shown  in  the  cut, 
but  occupy  the  place  of  a  plug  seen  on  top  of  the  valve  cham- 
ber. 

This  company  also  makes  a  vertical  engine  on  the  same 
principles  as  the  horizontal  one,  in  sizes  of  from  i  to  5  H.P. 
Their  horizontal  engines  are  made  in  five  sizes,  from  7  to  50 
B.H.P.  Also  double-cylinder  launch  engines  and  launches — 2 
H.P.  for  1 8-  and  2o-foot  launches,  4  H.P.  for  25-foot,  and  8  H.P. 
for  3 5 -foot  launches.  In  these  launch  motors  the  gasoline  for 
a  day's  run  is  stored  in  an  iron  receptacle  at  the  motor,  thus 
avoiding  all  danger  from  pipes  and  separate  tank  leakage. 

In  these  boats  the  engine  is  not  required  to  be  set  exactly 
in  line  with  the  propeller  shaft.  A  reversing  friction-clutch  is 
used  with  a  flexible  shaft  connection,  so  that  the  setting  of  the 
engine  and  shaft  in  any  boat  is  an  easy  matter.  The  cooling- 
water  from  the  cylinders  is  discharged  through  the  exhaust 
pipe,  which  is  a  rubber  hose  passing  out  at  the  stern.  By  this 
arrangement  the  rubber  exhaust  pipe  is  kept  cool,  and  its  flex- 
ibility makes  a  silent  exhaust. 

f  + 

The  Weber  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Weber  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine  Com- 
pany are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  poppet 
valves  operated  by  direct  push-rods  and  cams  on  the  reducing- 
gear,  which  is  enclosed  with  the  governor  in  an  iron  box,  partly 


VARIOUS   TYPES  OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


295 


filled  with  oil,  which  insures  perfect  lubrication  of  the  gear  and 
keeps  out  dust.  The  horizontal  styles  are  made  in  eight  sizes, 
of  3  to  15  B.H.P.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  166;  and  in  ten  sizes,  from 
18  to  100  H.P.,  of  the  style  as  shown  in  Fig.  170. 


They  also  build  a  one  size  vertical  engine,  of  2  B.H.P.,  fot. 
pumping  water,  running  ventilating  fans  and  printing  presses, 
etc.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  168.  The  illustration  (Fig.  169)  repre- 
sents a  self-contained  gasoline  engine  hoister,  of  10  B.H.P. — a 
reliable  and  compact  machine,  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of 


296 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


297 


miners,  quarrymen,  and  contractors.  The  engines  o£  this 
company  are  also  designed  for  the  use  of  kerosene,  crude  oil, 
and  distillate. 

The  style  of  horizontal  engine  (Fig.  166)  of  from  3  to    15 


CHIMNEY 


BURNER 

LUBRICATOR 


EXHAUST 


FIG.  168.— THE  VERTICAL  WEBER. 

B.H.P.  has  three  valve  push-rods — the  inner  one  opens  the  ex- 
haust valve,  the  middle  one  opens  the  inlet  valve,  and  the  out- 
side rod  operates  the  timing- valve  in  the  igniter  passage. 

Referring  to  the  lettered  diagram  (Fig.  167),  which  is  ar- 
ranged for  gasoline,  A  is  the  needle  valve  to  the  igniter  burner, 
B  the  gasoline  valve,  C  the  handle  of  the  gasoline  mixing- 
valve,  which  is  also  the  etarting-lever  for  letting  in  the  first 


298  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

charge  of  gasoline.  When  the  engine  is  running  this  valve  ia- 
opened  by  the  suction  of  the  piston.  In  the  larger  engines  it 
is  cotmterweighted,  as  seen  in  Fig.  170.  D  is  a  collar  for  con- 
necting the  vaporizing  pipe  L ;  E,  valve  for  regulating  the  gas- 
oline supply;  e,  a  lever  to  throw  out  the  timing- valve  when 
starting. 

The  governor  on  the  smaller  engines  is  of  the  pendulum 
type.  It  operates  the  inlet  or  charging  valve,  opening  the 
valve  at  every  other  revolution  at  normal  speed,  and  missing 
the  contact  at  increased  speed  when  the  spring  holds  the  valve 
closed  until  decreasing  speed  allows  the  governor  to  act  on 
the  push-rod  and  again  open  the  inlet  valve. 

The  governor  on  the  larger  engines  is  a  fly- weight  on  the 
reducing-gear,  adjusted  by  a  spring  and  set  nuts.  O  is  a  glass 
gauge  to  show  the  height  of  oil  in  the  gear  box ;  J  is  its  cover. 

In  their  latest  style  of  engine  (Fig.  170)  the  main  exhaust 
is  through  ports  in  the  cylinder  opened  by  the  piston  at  the 
termination  of  the  stroke,  with  a  supplementary  exhaust  valve 
in  the  cylinder  head  operated  by  a  lever  and  push-rod.  The 
timing- valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  pivoted  on  the  cylinder,  in 
contact  with  an  adjustable  push-block  on  the  inlet-valve 
push-rod. 

In  the  later  designs  of  the  Weber  many  improvements  have 
been  introduced  to  facilitate  easy  starting  and  for  adapting  it 
for  pumping  water  for  irrigation,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well 
suited  and  largely  used.  Its  adaptation  for  the  use  of  kerosene 
and  heavy  petroleum  oils,  and  also  for  crude  petroleum,  has 
made  it  a  very  -useful  motive  power  for  agricultural  work. 

The  Priestman  Oil  Engine. 

This  has  been  long  in  use  in  Europe,  and  for  several  years 
past  has  been  largely  improved  by  the  American  builders, 
Priestman  &  Co.,  who  have  introduced  a  new  system  for  per- 
fecting the  atomization  of  crude  and  kerosene  oils,  or  any  of 
the  cheap  distillates  of  petroleum.  By  the  svstem  adopted  in 


VARIOUS  TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


299 


this  engine,  perfect  combustion  is  produced;  ignition  is  made 
positive,  and  the  fouling  of  the  cylinder  and  valves  is  obviat- 
ed to  such  extent  as  to  require  cleaning  only  at  periods  of  sev- 


eral months.  The  low  cost  of  the  heavier  petroleum  distillates 
used  makes  the  cost  of  power  the  lowest  that  can  be  obtained 
in  an  explosive  motor. 

In  the  cut,  Fig.  1 72,  A  is  the  oil  tank  filled  with  any  ordinary 


300 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


high  test  (usually  150°  test)  oil,  from  which  oil  under  air  pressure 
is  forced  through  a  pipe  to  the  B  three-way  cock,  and  thence  con- 
veyed to  the  C  atomizer,  where  the  oil  is  met  by  a  current  of  air 


and  broken  up  into  atoms  and  sprayed  into  the  D  mixer,  where 
it  is  mixed  with  the  proper  proportion  of  supplementary  air  and 
-sufficiently  heated  by  the  exhaust  from  the  cylinder  passing 
around  this  chamber.  The  mixture  is  then  drawn  by  suction 
through  the  I  inlet  valve  into  the  E  cylinder,  where  it  is  com- 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


301 


pressed  by  the  piston  and  ignited  by  an  electric  spark  passing 
between  the  points  of  the  F  ignition  plug,  the  current  for  the 
spark  being  supplied  from  an  ordinary  battery  furnished  with 
the  engine,  the  G  governor  controlling  the  supply  of  oil  and 
air  proportionately  to  the  work  performed.  The  burnt  prod- 
ucts are  then  discharged  through  the  H  exhaust  valve,  which 
is  actuated  by  a  cam.  The  I  inlet  valve  is  directly  opposite  the 
exhaust  valve.  The  J  air  pump  is  used  to  maintain  a  small 


FIG.   173.— THE  AIR  PUMP. 

pressure  in  the  oil  tank  to  form  the  spray.  K  is  the  water- 
jacket  outlet. 

Fig.  171  illustrates  the  general  features  of  this  engine  It 
is  built  on  the  straight-line  principle,  by  which  the  moment  of 
greatest  strain  from  the  power  impulse  is  met  by  the  frame  in 
direct  lines  between  the  points  of  pressure. 

Th  e  design  is  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  pop- 
pet valves,  and  its  regulation  is  by  varying  or  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  atomized  oil.  The  oil  fuel  is  placed  in  the  base  of 
the  engine  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  A  in  Fig.  172.  A  small 
air-pump,  J,  operated  from  the  reducing-gear  shaft  forces  air 
into  the  oil  chamber  with  a  pressure  sufficient  to  cause  the  oil 
to  be  lifted  to  the  three-way  adjusting  cock  B,  which  also  ad- 
mits air  from  the  compressed  air  in  the  oil  tank ;  and  oil  and 
air  pass  to  the  atomizer  through  two  small  pipes,  where  their 
proportion  and  quantity  are  regulated  by  the  governor. 


302 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


The  atomized  oil  and  air  are  then  injected  into  a  jacketed 
cylinder,  seen  beneath  the  cylinder  head  and  shown  in  section 
in  Fig.  174,  where  it  is  completely  vaporized  by  the  heat  from 
the  exhaust  in  the  outer  chamber  and  further  mixed  with  air 
to  make  a  perfect  explosive  mixture  by  the  indraught  of  air  by 
the  suction  of  the  piston.  The  indraught  of  air  by  the  suction 
of  the  piston  is  also  regulated  by  the  governor,  and  enters  the 


FIG.  174.— THE  JACKET  VAPORIZING  CYLINDER,  INLET  AND  EXHAUST   VALVES. 

vaporizing  jacket  cylinder  in  an  annular  stream  around  the 
atomized  jet,  as  shown  in  Fig.  175,  which  represents  a  section 
of  the  governor  and  inlet  passages.  For  starting  the  engine  a 
small  hand-pump  is  used  for  the  first  charge.  The  bottom  of 
the  inside  chamber  of  the  jacketed  cylinder  is  heated  to  perfect 
the  vaporization  of  the  first  charge  by  a  lamp  placed  under  the 
D-shaped  cover  seen  in  Fig.  171.  In  this  engine  the  lubrica- 
tion of  the  cylinder  and  piston  is  accomplished  by'the  oil  of  the 
working  charge.  A  new  heat  device  has  been  lately  intro- 
duced for  ignition  for  the  Priestman  engines,  which  for  some 
reasons  is  preferred  to  the  electric  igniter. 

In  Fig.  176  is  represented  an  indicator  card  of  the  Priestman 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


303 


•engine,  running  under  the  three  conditions  of  full  load,  half- 
load,  and  no  load.     The  full  line  commences  the  compression 


A.    o 


"A  -  AIA 

"Os"  Jfi*  ^fSACf  ro-Sf>**Y>«*'<f*. 

"O  "  O/i  TMK  Ca*«ec  r,o* 

•  O  •   On.  fA 


FIG.    175.—  GOVERNOR  AND  ATOMIZER. 


*- 


ihO 

tf* 

•per. 

tp.ti 

<7 

<S 

<Z#0 

re  o 

Zrrf 

™?>. 

!S=' 

fi! 

170 

'1,1 

ion 

* 

,^ 

80 

• 

s 

^s« 

to 

Vs 

v^ 

- 

/" 

""'•«. 

>\ 

^ 

?<i 

/ 

v/ 

*  V 

%<^.. 

^> 

^^ 

^v 

/ 

"^^ 

•-~. 

^^  ^ 

_fl 

—  —  — 

S 

p...—  — 

^•-  J 

m-.~~ 

—  ^~ 

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'rr?& 

b^ 

Otl  0-2 

FIG.  176.— INDICATOR  CARD  OF  THE  PRIESTMAN  OIL  ENGINE. 

-at  three-eighths  of  the  stroke,  and,  with  a  clearance  equal  to 
one-half  the  piston  stroke,  the  compression  reaches  22  Ibs.  per 


304  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

square  inch  and  is  fired  just  before  the  termination  of  the  com- 
pression stroke.  The  quick  combustion  is  shown  by  the  nearly 
vertical  line,  and  its  velocity  is  shown  by  the  bound  of  the  in- 
dicator arm  above  the  mean,  and  its  vibration  continued,  pos- 
sibly helped  by  irregular  combustion  for  one-half  the  stroke,  as 
shown  by  the  upper  dotted  lines,  the  continuous  line  showing 
the  mean  curve. 

The  second  dotted  line,  showing  a  half -load  card,  indicates 
very  clearly  the  retardation  of  combustion  by  weakening  the 
charge  of  both  oil  and  air,  and  the  consequent  lowering  of  all 
the  lines  of  the  card,  carrying  the  charging  line  far  below  the 
atmospheric  line.  In  the  lowest  and  light-running  card,  the 
whole  value  of  the  card  drops  so  as  to  make  the  card  mean 
value  about  equal  to  the  engine  friction.  It  is  certainly  an  in- 
teresting card  for  study,  and  we  only  wish  that  we  could  show 
this  class  of  cards  on  a  larger  scale  and  for  all  the  conditions 
of  governing  by  limitation  of  fuel  to  compare  with  governing 
by  closure  of  the  exhaust  valve. 

The  Lawson  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  Lawson  engines  are  built  by  Welch  &  Lawson.  They 
are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type  and  of  the  vertical  style. 
They  are  built  in  eight  sizes,  from  -J-  to  15  B.H.P.  with  single 
cylinders,  and  of  20  and  30  B.H.P.  with  double  cylinders.  The 
concern  also  builds  gasoline  engines  for  horseless  wagons  and 
carriages.  Figs.  177  and  178  represent  two  styles  of  the  ver- 
tical engine.  The  valves  have  a  positive  motion  from  two  sets 
of  reducing-gear,  Fig.  177,  one  of  which  operates  the  poppet- 
exhaust  valve  by  a  push -rod  and  cam  on  the  reducing-gear 
shaft.  The  gas  and  air  inlets  are  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
cylinder  from  the  exhaust.  The  gas  valve  is  a  "poppet,  oper- 
ated directly  by  a  push-rod  from  a  cam  on  the  reducing-gear 
shaft,  while  a  piston  valve  operated  by  a  push-rod  from  a 
crank-pin  on  the  reducing-gear  governs  the  air  inlet  indepen- 
dently of  the  gas-inlet  valve. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


305 


By  this  arrangement  the  air  inlet  is  opened  before  the  gas 
inlet  is  opened,  and  allows  a  sweep  of  pure  air  to  enter  at  the 
head  of  the  cylinder,  followed  by  the  mixture  of  gas  and  air ; 
thus  in  a  measure  keeping  the  explosive  mixture  of  gas  and  air 


FIG.  177.— THE  LAWSON  VERTICAL. 


separate  from  the  products  of  the  previous  explosion  by  inject- 
ing it  across  and  next  to  the  cylinder  head  where  the  igniter 
inlet  enters  the  cylinder.  The  same  cycle  of  operation  is 
made  in  the  engine  Fig.  178,  by  a  single  set  of  gearing. 


306 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


The  igniter  is  of  the  hot-tube  style,  entering  the  side  of  the 
cylinder  directly  under  the  head.  The  governor  is  of  the  hori- 
zontal, centrifugal  style,  taking  its  motion  through  a  bevel  gear 


PlG.  178.— THE  LAWSON  AIR  AND  GAS  VALVE  GEARING. 

from  the  reducing-gear  shaft,  and  operates  the  gas-valve  push- 
rod  for  a  variable  gas  charge. 

The  Lawson  pumping  engines  (Fig.  179)  are  made  in  two 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


307 


sizes,  i  and  2  B.H.P.  These  engines  are  constructed  on  the 
same  principles  as  the  power  engines,  only  with  inverted  cyl- 
inder and  with  pump  attachments  on  a  single  square  base. 


PIG.    179.— THE  LAWSON  PUMPING  ENGINE. 

This  company  is  now  building  kerosene- oil  engines 
lar  pattern  as  here  described. 


308 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


The  Racine  Gas  a/id  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Racine  Hardware  Company  combine 
some  of  the  most  recent  improvements  in  construction.     They 


I 


ate  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type.     All  valves  are  of  the 
poppet  style.     The  regulation  of  speed  is  made  by  a  miss-open- 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  309 

ing  of  the  exhaust  valve,  by  which  a  fresh  charge  is  excluded 
when  the  piston  cushions  on  the  previous  charge  until  the  nor- 
mal speed  is  reached,  when  the  governor  again  opens  the  ex- 
haust valve  and  allows  a  fresh  charge  to  be  drawn  in.  This 
company  furnishes  both  hot-tube  and  electric  igniter  for  all 
their  engines,  so  that  failures  shall  not  occur  by  the  disabling 
of  one  or  the  other  of  the  igniting  apparatus. 

The  governor  is  of  the  horizontal  centrifugal  type,  revolv- 


FIG.    181.— THE  RACINE  GASOLINE   ENGINE. 

ing  on  the  main  shaft,  and  by  a  lever  connection  produces  a 
lateral  movement  of  a  rolling  disc  attached  to  the  lever  of  the 
exhaust  push-rod.  The  lateral  motion  of  the  governor-con- 
trolled disc  rides  the  disc  on  to  or  off  the  exhaust  cam  on  the 
reducing-gear  for  a  miss-exhaust.  The  gasoline  pump  is  ope- 
rated by  a  cam  on  a  small  shaft  driven  by  the  reducing-gear, 
and  furnishes  a  surplus  supply  to  a  receiving  cup  over  the 
mixing-chamber,  with  an  overflow  pipe  returning  the  surplus 
gasoline  to  the  tank  by  gravity.  Between  the  supply  cup  and 
the  mixing-chamber  there  is  a  sight-feed  valve,  by  which  the 
flow  of  gasoline  to  the  mixing-chamber  may  be  observed  and 
regulated.  Any  surplus  or  overfeeding  produces  no  dangerous 
conditions,  as  the  gasoline  entering  the  mixing-chamber  in  ex- 
cess fails  into  the  recess  at  the  bottom  and  is  conveyed  back  to 


310  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 

the  tank  through  the  overflow  pipe  from  the  supply  cup.  It 
will  be  observed  by  inspection  of  the  cuts  (Figs.  181  and  182) 
that  the  exhaust  pipe  is  jacketed  for  a  short  distance  above  the 
engine,  with  inlet  holes  for  the  entrance  of  air  at  the  top  and 
a  neck  from  the  jacket  to  the  mixing-chamber  below,  so  that 
the  air  is  warmed  before  meeting  the  incoming  gasoline  in  the 
mixing-chamber,  where  by  an  extended  surface  the  gasoline  is 
perfectly  vaporized  and  mixed  with  air  for  best  effect.  The 


FIG.   182.— THE  RACINE  GASOLINE  ENGINE. 

quantity  drawn  in  for  ignition  is  regulated  by  the  index  valve 
near  the  inlet  valve,  at  which  point  a  further  admixture  of  air 
completes  the  proportions  necessary  for  the  desired  explosive 
action. 

At  present  these  engines  are  built  of  2,  3,  and  4  B.H.P. 
They  are  well  adapted  for  small  electric-lighting  plants,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  180. 

The  Hornsby-Akroyd  Oil  Engine.  . 

This  engine  is  of  English  origin  and  now  built  by  the  sole 
licensees  of  the  United  States  patents — the  De  La  Vergne  Re- 
frigerating Machine  Company — in  all  sizes  from  4  to  55  H.P 
They  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  using  any  of  the 
heavy  mineral  oils  or  kerosene  as  fuel. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES    AND    MOTORS.  311 

This  unique  explosive  engine  seems  to  be  a  departure  in 
design  from  all  other  forms  of  explosive  engines,  in  the  man- 
ner of  producing  vaporization  of  the  heavy  oils  used  for  its  fuel 
and  the  manner  of  ignition. 

An  extension  of  a  chamber  from  the  cylinder  head,  some- 
what resembling  a  bottle  with  its  neck  next  to  the  cylinder 
head,  performs  the  function  of  both  evaporator  and  exploder. 
Otherwise  these  engines  are  built  much  on  the  same  lines  of 
design  as  gas  and  gasoline  engines,  having  a  screw  reducing- 


FlG.   183.— THE   HORNSBY-AKROYD    OIL   ENGINE. 

gear  and  secondary  shaft  that  drives  the  governor  by  bevel 
gear,  the  automatic  cylinder  lubricator  by  belt,  and  cams  for 
operating  the  exhaust  valve  and  oil  pump. 

The  bottle-shaped  extension  is  covered  in  by  a  hood  to  fa- 
cilitate its  heating  by  a  lamp  or  air-blowpipe,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  be  entirely  closed  after  the  engine  is  started,  when  the 
red  heat  of  the  bottle  or  retort  is  kept  up  by  the  heat  of  com- 
bustion within.  The  narrow  neck  between  the  bottle  and  cyl- 
inder, by  .its  exact  adjustment  of  size  and  length,  perfectly 
controls  the  time  of  ignition,  so  that  of  many  indicator-cards 
inspected  by  the  writer  there  is  no  perceptible  variation  in  the 


3I2 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND     OIL    ENGINES. 


time  of  ignition,  giving  as  they  do  a  sharp  corner  at  the  com- 
pression terminal,  a  quick  and  nearly  vertical  line  of  combus- 
tion, and  an  expansion  curve  above  the  adiabatic,  equivalent 
to  an  extra  high  mean  engine  pressure  for  explosive  engines. 


FIG.   184.— INJECTTON.  AIR  AND  OIL. 


The  oil  is  injected  into  the  retort  in  liquid  form  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  pump  at  the  proper  time  to  meet  the  impulse  stroke, 


FIG.   185. -COMPRESSION. 


and  in  quantity  regulated  by  the  governor.     During  the  outer 
stroke  of  the  piston  air  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  and  the  oil  is 


FlG.  186.— COMBUSTION   AND  EXPANSION. 


vaporized  in  the  hot  retort.  At  the  end  of  the  charging  stroke 
there  is  oil  vapor  in  the  retort  and  pure  air  in  the  cylinder,  but 
non-explosive.  On  the  compression  stroke  of  the  piston  the 
air  is  forced  from  the  cylinder  through  the  communicating 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


313 


neck  into  the  retort,  giving-  the  conditions  represented  in  Fig. 
184  and  Fig.  185,  in  which  the  small  stars  denote  the  fresh  air 
entering,  and  the  small  circles  the  vaporized  oil.  In  Fig.  185 
mixture  commences,  and  in  Fig.  186  combustion  has  taken 
place,  and  during  expansion  the  supposed  condition  is  repre- 


FlG.   187.— THE  HORNSBY-AKROYD  PORTABLE  ENGINE. 

sented  by  the  small  squares.  At  the  return  stroke  the  whole 
volume  of  the  cylinder  is  swept  out  at  the  exhaust,  and  the 
pressure  in  the  retort  neutralized  and  ready  for  another  charge. 

It  is  noticed  by  this  operation  that  ignition  takes  place 
within  the  retort,  the  piston  being  protected  by  a  layer  of  pure 
air. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  these  diagrams  are  exact  representa- 
tions of  what  actually  takes  place  within  the  cylinder ;  never- 
theless, their  substantial  correctness  seems  to  be  indicated  by 


314 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


the  fact  that  the  piston  rings  do  not  become  clogged  with  tarry 
substances,  as  might  be  expected. 

This  has  been  accounted  for  by  an  analysis  of  the  products 


of  combustion,  which  shows  an  excess  of  oxygen  as  unburned 
air;  which  indicates  that  the  oil  vapor  is  completely  burned  in 
the  cylinder,  with  excess  of  oxygen. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


315 


316  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

In  Fig.  187  is  illustrated  the  adaptation  of  this  engine  for 
portable  power.  It  is  largely  in  use  for  electric  work,  for  air 
compressing,  ice  machinery,  and  pumping.  The  United  States 
Light-House  Department  has  adopted  this  engine  for  compress- 
ing air  for  fog  whistles.  Traction  engines  and  oil-engine  loco- 
motives for  narrow-gauge  tramways  and  mining  railways  will 
soon  be  one  of  the  manufacturing  departments  of  the  De  La 
Vergne  Company. 

In  Fig.  1 88  is  shown  a  sectional  elevation,  details  of  design 
of  the  cylinder,  piston,  combustion  chamber  and  its  case.  It  may 
be  noticed  that  the  combustion  chamber  is  made  in  two  parts, 
flanged  together,  so  that  by  a  special  water  jacket  the  front  half 
is  kept  cool  and  to  limit  the  firing  plane  in  the  combustion  cham- 
ber to  a  definite  position.  The  oil  reservoir,  located  in  the  base 
of  the  engine,  is  partitioned  to  allow  of  traversing  the  intake 
air  over  and  around  the  oil  to  take  any  vapors  or  odors  from 
the  oil  and  constantly  sweep  them  into  the  cylinder. 

In  Fig.  189  is  shown  the  direct  connection  of  an  oil  'motor 
with 'a  triplex  pump  by  means  of  a  friction  clutch.  This  con- 
venient and  most  economical  arrangement  allows  the  motor  to 
be  easily  started  alone  and  its  power  gradually  applied  to  the 
pump  without  undue  strain  or  jar. 

The  R.  &  V.  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. 

In  Fig.  190  we  illustrate  the  four-cycle  engine  of  the  Root  & 
Vandervoort  Engineering  Co.,  East  Moline,  111.,  and  in  Fig.  192 
the  bed  frame  with  pillow  blocks  and  spiral  reducing  gear.  In 
the  design  of  these  engines  the  cylinder  is  overhung  and  bolted 
to  the  face  of  the  bed  frame.  The  journal  bearings  are  of  the 
quarter  box  type,  babbitted  and  adjustable.  Beneath  each  box  is 
an  oil  chamber  with  chain  oiler  running  over  the  journal. 

The  side  shaft  operates  the  exhaust  valve  by  a  cam  and  also 
the  gasoline  pump,  sparker  trip,  and  drives  the  governor  by  bevel 
gear.  The  governing  is  by  limiting  the  charge  through  the  gas 
inlet  valve  or  pump  stroke. 


VARIOUS  TYPES   OF  ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  317 

Ignition  is  by  the  hammer  type  with  electrodes  of  hard 
platinum,  with  attachment  at  the  center  of  the  cylinder  head, 
which  is  also  water-cooled.  The  sparking  trip,  which  is  placed 
conveniently  on  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  is  simple  and  positive 
in  its  action ;  is  noiseless  and  quickly  adjustable  for  timing  the 
spark. 


FlG.    IQO. — R.    &   V.    HORIZONTAL   GAS   AND    GASOLINE   MOTOR.       THE    ROOT   &   VAN 
DERVOORT   ENGINEERING    CO.,    EAST   MOLINE,    ILL. 

Each  engine  is  furnished  with  a  full  equipment  for  any  service 
with  a  sparking  dynamo,  or  a  set  of  batteries  complete  and  ready 
for  starting,  together  with  plans  and  directions  for  setting,  start- 
ing and  taking  care  of  engine. 

The  horizontal  engines  are  built  in  four  sizes  from  3  to  14 
horse  power,  and  of  the  vertical  type  in  three  sizes  of  I,  2  and 
3  horse  power. 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

In  Fig.  191  is  well  shown  the  exhaust  side  of  the  cylinder  and 
valve  lever  with  the  engine  connected  to  a  dynamo  for  lighting 


FlG.    191. — R.  &  V.  DIRECT-CONNECTED   TO    DYNAMO. 

purposes.  The  engines  are  also  mounted  without  the  sub-base 
on  wagons  for  portable  use  and  are  becoming  very  popular  among 
the  farming  community. 


FlG.    IQ2. — THE    BED    FRAME. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


319 


In  Fig.  193  we  illustrate  a  vertical  section  of  their  vertical  gas- 
oline motor,  showing  much  of  the  details  of  its  construction. 


FlG.    193. — VERTICAL   SECTION   R.    &   V.    MOTOR. 


The  base  is  a  closed  chamber  for  holding  from  one  to  two 
days'  supply  of  gasoline  poured  in  at  Y,  with  a  pump  connection 


320 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


and  drip  at  T ;  U  the  pump  and  c  a  strainer.  Special  packings  in 
the  journals  at  a,  b;  the  exhaust  lever  at  D,  and  the  hammer  spark 
device  at  E,  H,  G.  Lubrication  of  the  internal  parts  is  made  by 
the  dasher  at  the  end  of  the  connecting  rod. 

In  Fig.  194  is  shown  the  arrangement  for  operating  the  spark- 


FlG.     194. — EXHAUST   VALVE   ROD   AND    SPARKING   TRIP   DEVICE. 


ing  device  by  a  spring-clip  rod  attached  to  the  exhaust  valve  push 
rod,  the  contact  and  break  of  the  hammer  being,  adjusted  as  to 
time  by  a  screw  in  a  block  just  above  the  catch  which  accelerates 
or  retards  the  ignition  time  with  positive  effect. 

The  charging  chamber  at  the  left  in  the  cut  is  of  the  constant 
level  type  with  an  excess  of  overflow  back  to  the  tank  in  the  base 
of  the  motor. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  321 


The  White  &  Middle  ton  Gas  Engine. 

This  engine  is  equally  suited  to  both  gas  and  gasoline,  an  J 
is  made  by  the  White  &  Middle  ton  Gas  Engine  Company.  All 
their  engines  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  with  the 
principal  exhaust  ports  opened  by  the  piston  at  the  end  of  its 


FIG.   195.— THE  WHITE  &  MIDDLETON   ENGINE. 

explosive  stroke,  and  with  an  additional  or  clearance-exhaust 
valve  in  the  cylinder  head. 

The  valves  are  all  of  the  poppet  type.  The  supplementary 
exhaust  valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  across  the  cylinder  head 
and  a  push-rod  direct  from  a  differential  slide  mechanism, 
which  does  away  with  the  reducing-gear  used  on  other  engines. 
An  arm  on  the  push-rod  operates  the  gas- valve  stem,  which 
is  provided  with  a  regulating  adjustment. 

The  small  roller  disc  on  the  push-rod  mechanism  is  under 
the  control  of  a  centrifugal  governor  and  a  spring,  being 


322 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


thrown  out  of  gear  with  the  shaft  cam  whenever  the  speed  of 
the  engine  exceeds  the  normal  rate,  and  thus  failing  to  open 
the  gas  supply  and  the  supplementary  exhaust  valve  until  the 
speed  of  the  engine  has  returned  to  its  normal  rate.  There 
is  a  relief  valve  opening  into  the  supplementary  exhaust  pas- 
sage for  relieving  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  when  starting  the 


FIG.  106.— SECTIONAL  PLAN  OF  THE  WHITE  &  MIDDLETON  ENGINE. 

engine.  The  whole  design  of  the  engine  is  exceedingly  simple 
and  its  action  noiseless. 

When  gasoline  is  used  the  gas-supply  valve  is  replaced  by  a 
small  pump,  which  is  operated  by  the  push-rod,  and  its  hit-or- 
miss  stroke  is  governed  by  the  action  of  the  push-rod  and  its 
governor. 

These  engines  are  built  in  nine  sizes,  from  4  to  50  B.  H.  p. 


The  Light  Weight  Motor. 

In  Fig.  197  we  illustrate  one  of  the  lightest  weight  motors  on 
the  market,  being  but  27  pounds  per  brake  horse  power  at  its 
maximum  speed  of  1,800  revolutions  per  minute.  The  cylinders 
are  324-inch  diameter  by  3^-inch  stroke.  The  cylinder  and  head 
are  cast  in  a  single  piece,  with  a  water  jacket  covering  both  cylin- 
der and  head.  No  gaskets  to  blow  out  and  no  leakage  of  water 
to  the  cylinder. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


323 


The  base  and  all  parts  not  necessarily  of  steel  or  cast  iron  are 
made  of  aluminum,  nickel-plated;  bearings  of  gun  metal — the 
complete  motor  weighing  but  95  pounds.  Speed  regulation  is 
made  by  throttling  the  charge  or  shifting  the  time  of  sparking 
as  desired.  It  is  a  neat  and  compact  motor,  suitable  for  an  or- 


FlG.   197. — LIGHT  WEIGHT 
MOTOR. 


FlG.   Ig8.— THE   DUPLEX    LIGHT   WEIGHT 
MOTOR. 


dinary  automobile  carriage  of  1,200  pounds  gross  weight,  or  a 
boat  from  16  to  20  feet  in  length,  and  costs  less  than  $50  per 
brake  horse  power.  In  Fig.  198  is  illustrated  the  duplex  motor 
of  lighter  weight  per  horse  power  suitable  for  a  30-foot  boat  or 
a  high-speed  automobile.  Mohler  &  De  Gress,  Long  Island 
City,  New  York,  are  the  builders. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS- 


:ONTINUED 


Fetter's  Gasoline  Engine  and  Motor  Carriage, 

THE  Fetter  engine  is  an  English  design  and  so  simple  in  its 
parts  that  we  give  it  a  place  here  for  the  benefit  of  our  amateur 
friends. 

As  designed  for  a  carriage  for  four  persons,  the  cylinder  is 
made  3^  inches  diameter,  6  inches  stroke  ;  the  inner  shell  of 
the  cylinder  of  cast  iron,  \  inch  thick  at  the  combustion  end. 
The  outer  shell  is  made  of  thin  tubing  driven  over  the  flanges 


FlG.    217. — THE  FETTER  STATIONARY  ENGINE. 

and  calked.  When  made  for  a  stationary  engine  the  outer  shell 
may  be  made  of  cast  iron  and  pushed  over  the  inner  cylinder,  as 
shown  in  the  sectional  cut,  Fig.  218. 

The  engine  is  of  i  H.  p.  actual  at  200  revolutions.     The  prin- 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


325 


ciples  of  both  stationary  and  carriage  engines  are  essentially  the 
same.  For  a  carriage,  the  cylinder  is  bolted  to  two  parallel  steel 
bars,  which  carry  the  main  bearings. 

The  crank  shaft  is  balanced  and  has  a  bored  recess  for  oil, 
holding  sufficient  for  a  day's  run.  The  gasoline  gravitates  to 
the  inlet  valve  A  through  a  percolator  G,  Fig.  2 1 8,  and  atomized 
by  the  air  drawn  in  through  B  by  the  suction  of  the  piston. 
The  exhaust- valve  E  is  operated  by  a  long  lever  from  a  cam  on 
the  reducing-gear. 


FlG.    2l8. — SECTION   OF   THE   FETTER   GASOLINE   ENGINE. 

Fig.  219  represents  the  general  plan  of  the  motor  carriage 
and  driving-gear.  The  first  motion  chain  E  E'  conveys  power 
to  the  intermediate  shaft  H  by  means  of  a  friction-gear  opera- 
ted by  a  lever  in  the  carriage  at  the  right  hand  of  the  driver  at 
G,  which  presses  the  bell  crank  W,  slightly  moves  the  shaft 
and  grips  the  chain  wheel  E'  between  the  wooden  blocks  on  the 
disks  F  F  F  F.  The  same  lever  pulled  instead  of  pushed  puts  on 
the  brake,  and  thus  forms  in  one  the  starting,  stopping,  and 
brake  lever.  Another  lever  M  is  for  changing  the  speed  by 
releasing  or  closing  the  clutch  of  the  high-speed  sprocket  N. 


326 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


The  low-speed  gear  L  K  has  an  overrunning  ratchet  on  the  main 
axle  at  R.  A  removable  handle  S  is  used  for  starting  the  engine 
and  at  the  same  time  by  an  arrangement  not  shown  in  the  cut 
opens  the  exhaust  until  the  first  charge  is  fired.  The  water  and 
gasoline  are  placed  under  the  back  seat  and  neatly  enclosed. 


FlG.    2IQ. — PLAN   OF   THE   FETTER   MOTOR   CARRIAGE. 


The  Otto  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  "Otto  Gas  Engine"  is  essentially  a  historic  name,  and 
as  now  built  by  the  Otto  Gas  Engine  Works,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
combines  the  fundamental  principles  first  put  in  practice  by 
Dr.  Otto  in  Germany  in  1867,  and  which  is  the  basis  of  our  best 
working  engines.  The  four-cycle  compression  type  seems  to 
have  become  a  standard,  and  in  the  workshops  of  the  Otto  Co.  m 
the  United  States  has  been  modified  and  developed  into  a  most 
perfect  action  by  improvements  in  the  lines  of  the  most  ap- 
proved details  of  construction. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


327 


The  adoption  of  the  nickel  alloy  igniting  tubes  has  done 
away  with  the  constant  annoyance  from  the  burning  out  of  iron 
tubes  at  inconvenient  moments. 

In  the  engines  of  the  Otto  Co. ,  among  some  of  the  minor 
improvements  that  have  contributed  to  its  noiseless  running  and 
wearing  properties  may  be  named  the  spiral  gear  for  operating 
the  valve- gear  shaft,  separate  and  removable  casings  for  the 
valves,  change-speed  governors,  and  automatic  oiler  rings  on 
main  journals. 


FlG.  2J3-— THE  OTTO  HORIZONTAL  GAS  ENGINE — FITTED  FOR  ELECTRIC  IGNITION. 

The  cylinder  oiling-device  is  also  automatic  and  operated 
by  a  small  belt  from  the  valve-gear  shaft.  The  crank-pin 
boxes  and  piston  joints  are  also  automatically  oiled  by  a  wiping 
oil- cup  on  the  crank  housing,  the  oil  for  the  piston  pin  passing 
through  the  hollow  connecting-rod. 

The  gas-inlet  valve  is  operated  by  a  two-armed  rocker  shaft, 
one  arm  of  which  carries  a  pin  and  traversing  roller-disk, 
which  is  guided  on  or  off  the  step  cam  by  a  forked  bell-crank 
lever  connected  with  the  governor,  thus  controlling  a  variable 


328 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


329 


charge.     The   electric  or  hot-tube  igniter  is  furnished  at  the 
option  of  purchasers. 

The  electric  spark  is  made  by  breaking  contact  of  platinum 
electrodes,  one  of  which  is  insulated  in  the  head  of  the  cylin- 
der, the  trip  being  operated  on  the  outside  by  a  swinging  push- 
blade  driven  by  an  eccentric  pin  on  the  end  of  the  valve-gear 
shaft. 


YlG.    235. — THE   VERTICAL   ^l/2    H.-P.    GAS   ENGINE. 

The  horizontal  engines  are  built  in  various  sizes  from  3^ 
to  100  horse-power.  The  vertical  type  of  the  Otto  engines  is 
•built  in  a  neat  and  compact  form  for  both  stationary  and  ma- 
rine power — the  single  cylinder  from  i  to  1 2  horse-power,  and 
with  double  cylinders  from  17  to  TOO  horse-power. 


330 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS.  331 


FlG.    23Q  — THE   DUPLEX   MARINE    ENGINE.      LARBOARD   SIDE, 


332 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


333 


These  engines  are  of  the  four-cyele  Otto  compression  type, 
and  equally  adapted  for  the  use  of  gas  or  gasoline  fuel. 

For  electric  lighting  power  these  engines  have  given  a  most 
satisfactory  test.  Fig.  236  illustrates  the  vertical  two-cylinder 
or  marine  type  of  the  Otto  gas  or  gasoline  engine  with  direct 
connection  to  a  four-pole  generator  with  elastic  coupling,  which 
ensures  freedom  from  unequal  journal  pressures,  as  between  the 
motor  and  generator,  as  well  as  the  elimination  of  belt  friction. 


FlG.    237. — SMALLER    SIZE   MARINE   ENGINE   WITH    REVERSING-GEAR. 

The  Otto  Marine  Engine. 

The  small  marine  engines  have  a  single  cylinder  from  i  to- 
1 2  horse-power  and  two  cylinders  from  17  to  i  oo  horse-power,. 


334 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


All  sizes  are  made  with  reversing-gear  or  with  reversible  pro- 
peller blades,  as  desired.  The  same  general  principles  of 
construction  characteristic  of  the  Otto  type  have  been  carried 
out  in  all  the  marine  engines.  The  crank  is  enclosed  in  a  case, 


FlG.    238. — THE   DUPLEX   VERTICAL   STATIONARY    AND   MARINE    ENGINE.       STAR- 
BOARD  SIDE.      BASE  IS   NOT   USED   IN  THE   MARINE  ENGINE. 

and  all  wearing  parts  are  oiled  from  sight- feed  automatic  oil- 
cups,  so  arranged  as  to  be  controllable  and  in  view  while  the 
engine  is  running.  The  gasoline  is  forced  to  the  cylinders  in 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS.  335 

positive  and  regulated  quantity  by  a  pump  situated  low  down 
so  that  there  may  be  no  annoyance  from  overflow  by  the 
pitching  of  the  boat,  the  gasoline  being  fed  to  the  cylinder 
under  the  control  of  the  governor,  the  surplus  flowing  back  to 
the  tank  from  the  small  receiver  on  the  head  of  the  cylinder. 

The  reversing  blade  propeller  is  becoming  a  favorite  device 
for  controlling  the  speed  or  reversing  for  an  engine  that  must 
run  constantly  in  one  direction ;  it  is  simple  and  noiseless  and 
allows  of  a  gradual  change  without  a  shock — a  valuable  feature 
in  a  pleasure  boat.  The  fuel  account,  which  is  of  great 
moment  in  a  boat,  has  been  reduced  to  one- tenth  of  a  gallon  of 
76°  gasoline  per  indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  A  governor 
is  provided  on  all  the  larger  marine  engines  which  controls 
the  charging  valves  by  the  sliding  of  a  differential  cam  on  the 
valve-gear  shaft,  which  operates  the  valve  levers,  the  action 
being  controlled  by  the  governor  through  a  bell- crank  lever, 
as  shown  more  fully  in  the  illustration  of  the  horizontal  engine. 

In  the  reversible  screw  the  blades  are  centered  radially 
through  the  center  line  of  the  shaft,  giving  the  hub  a  clean-cut 
appearance,  and  with  the  least  possible  resistance  through  the 
water.  The  boats  are  furnished  in  all  sizes  from  1 3  feet  up,  the 
1 3-foot  boat  having  a  brass  engine  of  i  horse-power. 

The  Hamilton  Gas  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Advance  Manufacturing  Company,  Ham- 
ilton, Ohio,  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type,  as  shown 
'in  the  two  views  of  the  horizontal  engine  as  arranged  for 
gasoline. 

A  noiseless,  smooth,  and  steady  running  engine  equally 
adapted  for  gas,  gasoline,  natural  or  producer  gas.  It  is  very 
simple  in  its  working  parts  and  arranged  for  electric  ignition 
with  a  governing- device  that  governs  the  speed  of  the  engine 
by  variable  charges  of  fuel. 

The  valves  are  of  the  poppet  style,  the  exhaust-valve  being 


336 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES 


FlG.    242. — THE  HAMILTON   GASOLINE  ENGINE. 


FIG.  243.— THE  "HAMILTON." 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS.  337 

opened  by  a  cam  on  the  secondary  shaft  and  lever.  The 
mixture  of  gas  or  gasoline  and  air  is  drawn  through  a  regula- 
ted valve  by  the  suction  of  the  piston,  always  proportional  for  the 
best  explosive  effect,  and  governed  as  to  quantity  by  a  throttle 
directly  actuated  by  the  governor. 

In  the  gasoline  attachment  the  pump  is  driven  by  a  cam  on 
the  secondary  shaft  and  draws  the  gasoline  from  the  tank  at  a 
level  below  the  engine,  forcing  it  into  a  small  receiver  from 
which  the  surplus  returns  by  gravity  to  the  tank;  the  gaso- 
line being  atomized  and  vaporized  by  the  action  of  the  indraft 
of  air  from  the  movement  of  the  piston.  The  sparking- device 
is  operated  by  a  push-bar  and  eccentric  pin  at  the  end  of  the 
secondary  shaft. 

The  unshipping  of  a  small  lever  noticed  on  the  valve  gear 
stops  the  fuel  flow  and  the  engine  by  closing  the  inlet  throttle 
valve. 

The  Mietz  &  Weiss  Gas' and  Oil  Engines 

The  gas  engine  of  the  Weiss  patents  is  built  by  August 
Mietz,  No.  87  Elizabeth  Street,  New  York  City.  It  is  of  the  two- 
cycle  type,  taking  an  impulse  at  every  revolution.  It  has  an 
enclosed  crank  chamber  with  a  supplementary  small  cylinder 
containing  a  free  moving  piston  counterbalanced  by  a  spring. 
An  opening  into  the  crank  chamber  under  the  piston  pro- 
duces compression  of  the  gas  in  the  upper  part  of  the  small 
cylinder  by  the  air  pressure  in  the  crank  chamber  during  the 
impulse  stroke  and  so  feeds  the  gas  charge  with  equal  pressure 
with  the  air  charge  made  by  the  outward  stroke  of  the  piston. 
The  air  charge  enters  through  a  port  in  the  cylinder  opened  at 
the  inward  stroke  of  the  piston,  which  produces  a  slight  vacuum 
in  the  crank  chamber  and  thereby  causes  the  air  to  rush  in  while 
the  port  is  open.  The  return  or  impulse  stroke  compresses  the 
air  in  the  crank  chamber,  which  in  turn  compresses  the  gas  by 
the  movement  of  the  small  free  piston. 

By  the  opening  of  a  charging  port  in  the  cylinder  by  the 


338 


GAS,    GAS<>LIXE,    AND    OIL    EXGIXKS, 


piston  at  the  end  of  its  impulse  stroke  the  compressed  charge  of 
air  and  gas  enters  the  cylinder.  A  larger  cylinder-port  opening 
just  before  the  end  of  the  stroke  exhausts  the  cylinder  of  the 
products  of  the  burned  gases.  A  projection  or  deflector  on  the 
piston  directs  the  incoming  charge  towards  the  head  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  charge  of  gas  is  made  through  a  small  poppet-valve 
operated  by  a  push-blade,  rock-shaft  lever,  and  an  eccentric  on 
the  main  shaft. 


FlG.    244. — THE   MIETZ   &    WEISS    GAS   ENGINE. 

The  governing  is  by  the  inertia  of  a  weight  adjustable  as  to  its 
position  on  the  push-blade  arm  by  a  screw  thread,  and  by  the 
motion  of  the  arm  the  weight  rides  up  an  incline  and  is  released 
at  the  top  of  the  incline  to  fall  by  gravity  and  catch  the  blade 
of  the  gas- valve. 

An  excess  in  speed  sends  the  weight  too  high  to  catch  the 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


339 


valve  stem  and  a  mischarge  is  made.  The  hot-tube  igniter  is 
a  novelty  in  its  line.  The  tube  is  made  of  lava  4  inches  in  length 
and  perforated  with  a  central  hole  from  end  to  end.  It  is  held 


FlG.    245. — THE    MIETZ    &    WEISS    OIL    ENGINE. 

in  sockets  with  asbestos  washers  and  a  screw  clamp ;  the  chim- 
ney being  held  by  a  lug  with  a  clear  opening  at  the  bottom  for 
the  indraft  of  air,  at  which  point  the  gas  jet  is  located,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  244. 


343  (>AS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

The  kerosene  oil  engines  are  built  on  the  same  general  plan 
of  the  gas  engine,  only  displacing  the  ignition  device  in  the 
cylinder  for  a  conical  internally  flanged  vaporizer  and  igniter, 
upon  the  flanges  of  which  the  oil  is  projected  in  small  and  defi- 
nite quantities  by  the  action  of  a  small  plunger  held  back  by  a 
spring  and  pushed  forward  by  the  governed  push-blade,  as  in 
the  gas  engine.  A  small  valve  at  the  pump  cylinder  terminus, 
held  back  by  a  spring,  limits  the  amount  of  oil  injected  to  the 
exact  volume  of  the  plunger  stroke.  The  air  charge  is  exactly 
the  same  as  described  for  the  gas  engine. 

To  start  the  oil  engine  the  conical  vaporizer  is  heated  by  a 


FlG.  245A. — OIL  ENGINE. 

lamp  to  the  proper  temperature  to  induce  ignition  of  the  inter- 
nal mixed  vapor  and  air  by  the  increased  heat  of  compression, 
when  the  engine  becomes  self-acting  by  a  turn  of  the  fly-wheels. 

In  the  experimental  work  of  Mr.  C.  W.  Weiss,  he  has  carried 
the  compression  in  the  kerosene  engine  up  to  400  Ibs.  per  square 
inch,  at  which  pressure  a  very  strong  engine  must  be  used;  but 
with  runs  at  100  and  up  to  250  Ibs.  compression  pressure,  a 
remarkable  economy  in  fuel  has  been  obtained;  the  combustion 
being  so  perfect  that  no  residues  are  found  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  cylinder,  and  exhaust. 

In  Fig.  245A  is  illustrated  a  direct-connected  centrifugal 
pump  with  a  high-speed  oil  engine  of  the  Mietz  &  Weiss  type. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS. 


341 


The  ring  lubrication  of  the  main  journal  in  a  Mietz  &  Weiss 
oil  engine  is  detailed  in  Fig.  24513.     In  this  arrangement  the  oil 


FlG.  245B. — LUBRICATING   DEVICE. 


seeping  to  the  outer  end  of  the  journal  drops  back  into  the  oil 
well. 

In  Fig.  2450  we  illustrate  the  working  detail  of  the  Mietz  & 
Weiss  kerosene  oil  engine  in  a  sectional  elevation  showing  the 


342 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


conical  vaporizer  E  D,  enclosed  in  a  shell  for  confining  the  lamp 
flame  when  starting  and  to  keep  the  outer  walls  hot  when  the 
engine  is  running. 

A  front  view  of  the  vaporizer  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner 


FlG.  245C.  — SECTION,   MIETZ  &  WEISS  OIL  MOTOR. 

of  the  cut  shows  the  extended  web  surface.  The  small  spring 
held  oil  valve  at  h,  holds  the  oil  between  it  and  the  pump  intact 
during  the  impulse  stroke.  The  small  oil  pump  at  g  is  operated 


FlG.  245D.  — OIL   PUMP  AND   PICK   BLADE. 


by  the  pick  blade  c,  with  a  hit  or  miss  charge,  governed  by  the 

momentum  of  a  small  weight  sliding  on  an  inclined  plane.     The 

amount  of  charge  and  the  interruption  being  rapidly  adjustable. 

In  Fig.  2450  is  shown  an  enlarged  section  of  the  pump  and 


t 
VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  343 

pick  blade.  The  injection  by  the  movement  of  the  piston  is  of  pure 
air  drawn  in  to  the  crank  case  by  the  forward  motion  of  the 
piston  and  compressed  when  at  the  opening  of  the  cylinder  port 
at  the  end  of  the  impulse  stroke.  The  compressed  air  is  injected 
into  and  guided  to  the  head  of  the  cylinder  to  meet  the  vaporized 
oil  in  the  vaporizing  cone.  Compression  and  the  heat  of  the 
vaporizer  fire  the  charge  at  proper  moment. 

The  Clifton  Motor. 
In  Fig.  245E  we  illustrate  a  il/2  horse  power  two-cycle  engine 


FlG.  245E.— I^  HORSE  POWER  MARINE. 

of  the  Clifton  Motor  Works,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  showing  the 
method  of  attaching  their  magneto-electric  igniting  device,  and 
in  Fig.  245F  the  reverse  side  of  a  4  horse  power  marine  engine. 
The  magneto  swings  on  a  forked  frame  with  its  pulley  in  contact 
with  the  flv  wheel. 


344 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


The  spark  is  made  by  a  hammer  break  operated  by  a  rod  and 
cam.  The  contact  points  are  of  platinum-iridium,  which  are  very 
hard  and  have  a  lasting  quality.  A  mixing  valve  regulates  the 
supply  of  gasoline  and  air. 

This  company  also  make  four-cycle  vertical  and  horizontal 
engines. 

The   company   also,   as   a   concession  to  amateur  mechanics, 


FlG.  245F. — 4  HORSE  POWER   MARINE. 


furnish  castings  of  their  engines  with  working  drawings,  which 
are  far  cheaper  than  to  undertake  to  make  patterns.  The  cast- 
ings for  a  i  horse  power  vertical  with  the  cylinder  bored  and 
faced  with  the  drawings  are  furnished  for  $30,  and  a  l/4  horse 
power  castings  and  drawings  for  $15.  A  fine  chance  for  amateurs 
to  indulge  in  gas  engine  work. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  345 

Motors  of  the  Lowell  Model  Company,  Lowell,  Mass. 

A  new  departure  in  the  explosive  motor  business  has  been 
adopted  by  this  company  in  undertaking  the  supply  of  not  only 
the  finished  motors,  but  also  of  finished  parts,  partly  finished 
castings,  rough  castings  and  every  part  that  will  contribute  to  the 
amateur's  desire  to  construct  a  part  or  the  whole  of  an  explosive 
motor.  They  furnish,  further,  all  the  parts  for  the  frame  and 


FlG.   2450. — THE  GASOLINE  MOTOR  OF  THE  LOWELL  MODEL  CO. 

rig  for  a  runabout  vehicle.  The  stationary  and  marine  two- 
cycle  motors  are  made  in  four  sizes,  from  fy  to  4  horse  power, 
with  cylinders  3x3,  3^  x  4,  4^  x  5,  and  5x6  inches,  for  which 
they  supply  shafts  and  reversing  propeller  wheels  for  each  of  the 
above-sized  motors.  The  illustration  shows  the  marine  frame, 
which  is  bolted  to  a  base  for  a  stationary  motor. 

In  Fig.  245 H  is  shown  a  section  of  a  special  auto  motor  of  3^2 
horse  power,  four-cycle  type,  of  special  design  for  automobiles. 
Tt  has  a  4  x  4-inch  cylinder.  Castings  for  these  motors,  rough, 
partly  finished,  with  all  the  parts,  with  blue  prints  figured  for 
construction,  are  furnished  to  order — one  of  the  finest  opportuni- 
ties for  exploiting  amateur  work. 


346 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


In  Fig.  245  i  is  shown  the  outline  model  of  the  light  runabout 
all  the  parts  of  which  are  supplied  by  the  Lowell  Model  Com- 


FlG.  245H. — VERTICAL    SECTION,     LOWELL    MOTOR. 


pany.     The  vehicle  complete  will  weigh  about  500  pounds,  and 
with  the  motor  described  will  be  capable  of  a  speed  of  from  i& 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  347 

to  20  miles  per  hour  with  two  persons.     The  company  furnish  all 
the  parts  in  rough  or  finished  with  working  drawings. 

The  company  have  published  schedules  and  price  lists  of  all 
their  varied  kinds  of  material  for  motors  and  the  runabouts,  as 
also  of  general  model  machinery.  Their  work  in  this  line  has 


FlG.    245  I. — THE    AUTO     GASOLINE    RUNABOUT. 

been  a  great  spur  to  amateur  work,  which  usually  meets  so  much 
impediment  from  the  necessity  of  designing  and  making  pat- 
terns for  this  class  of  machinery. 

The  Fairbanks  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engines. 

Ever  onward  is  the  progress  of  improvement  in  the  design 
and  construction  of  the  explosive  engine.  The  latest  comes 
from  the  Fairbanks  Company,  New  York  city. 

In  the  production  of  the  "Fairbanks"  the  best  points  in. 
former  constructions  and  experiments  have  been  adopted  that 
would  tend  to  perfection  in  running  regulation  and  economy, 
as  well  as  to  make  a  light  and  strong  motor.  In  appearance  it 
is  a  finished  machine. 

These  engines  are  of  the  four-cycle  compression  type  with 
screw-geared  cam  shaft  which  is  thrown  in  and  out  of  gear  by 
the  action  of  the  ball  governor,  which  is  located  just  forward  of 
the  main  shaft  and  driven  by  the  screw  gear  on  the  shaft.  The 


348 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


governor  operates  a  friction-clutch  in  contact  with  the  screw 
on  the  secondary  shaft,  causing  it  to  stop  at  the  moment  01 
overspeed. 


The  main  exhaust  is  through  a,  port  in  the  cylinder  at  the 
•end  of  the  piston  impulse  stroke  with  a  supplementary  exhaust 
through  a  poppet-valve  near  the  cylinder  head,  which  is  opera- 
ted by  a  cam  on  the  side  shaft. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


349 


350 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


The  supplementary  regulator  is  operated  directly  from  the 
.-governor  and  is  delicately  adjustable,  through  the  rod  connecting 
-a  small  and  independent  throttle  in  the  gas-inlet  pipe. 

The  gasoline  supply  consists  of  a  small  lifting  pump  seen  in 
front,  Fig.  251,  which  draws  the  gasoline  from  a  lower  level  and 
forces  it  into  the  small  cup  reservoir  at  the  right,  from  which 
ihe  smaller  pump  seen  at  the  rear  and  left  forces  the  liquid  in 


FlG.    251. — THE   GASOLINE  SUPPLY. 

-adjustable  quantity  into  the  air  pipe,  where  it  is  vaporized  by 
the  indraft  of  air  by  the  suction  of  the  piston.  The  surplus 
gasoline  flows  back  to  the  main  tank  by  gravity  through  the 
overflow  in  the  receiving-cup. 

In  Fig.  2  5  2  is  shown  the  arrangement  for  a  gravity  feed 
from  an  elevated  gasoline  tank.  The  plunger  at  the  right 
opens  two  minute  ports,  governed  by  the  motion  of  the  cam, 
that  feeds  a  stated  quantity  of  gasoline  to  the  force  pump  at  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


FlG.    252. — THE  GRAVITY   FEED. 


PlG.    253. — THE  CRANK-PIN  OILING-DEVICE. 


350^  GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


FlG.    254. — CRANK  END   OF    ENGINE,    SHOWING    DUPLEX    GOVERNING-DEVICE   FOR 
ELECTRIC-LIGHTING. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


351 


left  hand,  which  further  regulates  the  quantity  by  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  plunger  throw  and  by  the  suspension  of  the  cam 
motion  by  the  governor. 

Fig.  253  shows  the  wiping-device  for  oiling  the  crank  pin. 
The  centrifugal  action  of  the  crank  draws  the  oil  from  the  wiper 
to  the  bearing  without  waste. 


FlG.    255.— THE    BRONZE    BEARINGS    AND    RING  OILERS. 

The  oiling-device  on  the  main  shaft  bearings  consists  of 
a  bronze  ring  which  rides  on  the  shaft  in  a  channel  through 
the  middle  of  the  box,  and  dips  down  into  a  reservoir  of  oil. 
Each  revolution  brings  sufficient  oil  to  keep  it  thoroughly  lubri- 
cated; any  excess  of  oil  flowing  back  into  the  reservoir, 

A  small  glass  gauge  attached  to  each  reservoir  shows  the 


352  GAS,    GASOLINE,  t  AND    OIL    ENGINES 

quantity  in  it.     The  Fairbanks  Company  are  prepared  to  make 
their  engines  in  1 2  sizes,  from  2  to  i  oo  horse-power,  actual 

The   Watkins  Gas  and  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  engines  of  the  F.    M.   Watkins   Company,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  are  of  the  four-cycle  type,  in  which  the  gas  and  air 


ture  is  regulated  outside  of  the  combustion  chamber  by  a  single 
combination  gas  and  air  valve  controlled  by  the  governor.  The 
gasoline  engines  are  provided  with  a  pump  that  lifts  the  gasoline 
from  a  lower  level  outside  of  the  building,  returning  the  surplus 


•'  If 
VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS.  353 

to  the  tank.     A  vaporizing- device  is  used  for  starting  the  engine 
in  cold  weather. 

The  large  size  engines  are  provided  with  a  self-starting 
apparatus.  They  are  now  making  six  sizes  from  2  to  25  actual 
horse-power.  A  peculiar  feature  of  these  engines  is  in  the  use 


FlG.    257. — THE    GASOLINE   ENGINE. 


FlG.    258. — EXHAUST    SIDE. 

of  a  magneto  electric  generator  for  ignition.  It  is  shown  as  the 
"  Sumner  "  generator  in  Fig.  45,  page  95.  The  commutators  are 
hardened  tool  steel.  The  brushes  which  bear  on  the  commu- 
tators are  of  softer  material  and  self-adjusting. 

The  armature  is  encased  in  a  brass  box,  made  to  ensure  free- 
dom from  dust.     The  armature  in  the  smaller  sized  engines  is 


354  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

geared  to  the  main  shaft,  and  in  the  large  size  is  geared  to  the 
reducing  screw-gear  shaft,  which  also  operates  the  governor  by 
belt  and  the  pump  of  the  gasoline  engines  from  a  cam. 

The  armature  is  charged  by  a  permanent  magnetic  field  with 
a  current  sufficiently  strong  to  produce  an  ignition  spark  by  the 
turning  over  of  the  fly-wheels  for  starting  and  produces  a  brilliant 
spark  at  full  speed.  Both  contact  points  are  movable  from  the 
outside  and  can  be  cleaned  while  the  engine  is  running,  by 
simply  pushing  the  spindles  with  the  thumb,,  they  being  held 
back  by  a  spiral  spring. 

With  a  current  from  the  dynamo,  as  furnished  with  these 
engines,  the  mere  turning  over  of  the  fly-wheel  by  hand  produces 
a  sharp  and  full  spark,  which  is  well  shown  by  taking  out  a 
plug  opposite  the  sparker  contact  points  in  the  combustion 
chamber. 


Naphtha  Yachts  and  Launches. 

The  yachts  and  launches  of  the  Gas  Engine  and  Power  Co., 
Morris  Heights,  New  York  City,  are  propelled  by  the  vapor  of 
a  light  grade  of  gasoline,  which  vaporizes  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature  under  the  required  pressure  for  operating  the  three- 
cylinder,  single-acting  engine.  The  regulations  of  the  U.  S» 
Board  of  Supervising  Inspectors  now  class  the  naphtha  yachts 
and  launches  with  the  explosive  motor  yachts  and  launches,  so 
that  all  vessels  of  this  class  of  15  tons  and  under  are  not  subject 
to  inspection  or  license,  but  must  comply  with  the  government 
regulations  relating  to  lights,  steering,  and  the  rules  of  sailing 
on  navigable  waters. 

Fig.  261  illustrates  the  general  design  of  the  naphtha  motor, 
the  leading  parts  for  operating  being  designated  by  letters. 

The  opening  into  the  furnace  case  at  A  is  for  igniting  the 
burner,  and  another,  just  above,  for  inspecting  the  flame.  The 
small  pump  with  its  handle  at  E  is  for  drawing  vapor  of  naphtha 
from  the  chamber  of  the  gasoline  tank  and  forcing  it  into  the 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


355 


356 


GAS,    GASOLINE,    AND    OIL    ENGINES. 


burner  for  heating  the  vaporizer  at  starting,  and  also  for  blow- 
ing the  whistle,  which  is  done  by  shutting  off  the  vapor  pipe 
and  opening  an  air  inlet  to  the  pump  by  the  valve  B.  The 
valve  wheel  at  D  opens  the  naphtha  flow-pipe  from  the  tank  to 
the  feed-pump,  which  is  driven  from  a  cam  on  the  main  shaft, 


FlG.    26l.— THE  NAPHTHA  ENGINE. 

as  shown  at  the  right  in  the  sectional  elevation,  Fig,  262.  The 
lever  and  small  pump  at  F  is  for  forcing  naphtha  into  the 
vaporizer  before  starting  the  engine. 

When  the  pressure  in  the  vaporizer  becomes  sufficient  to 
operate  the  engine,  the  burner  is  made  automatic  by  opening 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    ENGINES    AND    MOTORS. 


357 


the  valve  of  the  injector  at  C,  by  which  the  force  of  the  vapor 
jet  draws  in  air  through  a  regulating-  throttle  and  forces  the 
mixture  of  vapor  and  air  to  the  burner.  The  slide-valves  are 
moved  successively  by  a  three-way  eccentric  shaft,  driven  from 
the  main  crank  shaft  by  three  spur  gears  that  fill  the  intervening 
space  between  the  two  shafts  and  drive  the  valve  shaft  at  the 
same  speed  with  the  main  shaft. 


FlG.    262. — VERTICAL   SECTION   OF  NAPHTHA  ENGINE 

The  hand  wheel  at  G  is  for  reversing  the  position  of  the 
valve  shaft  a  half  revolution,  which  reverses  the  engine.  The 
internal  gear  in  the  hand  wheel  consists  of  a  toothed  sector, 
pinion  attached  to  the  driving-gear,  and  a  small  spur  gear 
attached  to  the  valve  shaft.  By  this  arrangement  it  is  only  re- 
quired to  turn  the  wooden  hand  wheel  a  quarter  revolution,  to 
start  the  engine  in  either  direction  ;  and  only  to  hold  it  during  a 


35 8  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

quarter  revolution,  to  reverse  the  engine.  The  exhaust  enters 
the  crank  chamber,  which  is  closed  and  made  tight  on  the  main 
shaft  by  stuffing-boxes;  thence  by  a  pipe  through  the  hull  to 
the  condenser  along  the  keel,  from  which  the  condensed 
naphtha  is  discharged  into  the  tank  at  the  bow  of  the  boat. 

The  safety-valve  is  also  a  peculiar  feature  of  this  motor;  it 
is  held  closed  by  a  spring,  and  instead  of  discharging  into  the 
air,  causing  danger  and  waste  of  naphtha,  it  discharges  into 
the  crank  chamber  and  passes  the  vapor  through  the  condenser 
and  to  the  tank  as  fluid  naphtha.  These  motors  have  gained 
a  high  reputation  for  safety,  durability,  and  economy  in  the  ten 
years'  experience  with  their  use. v  They  are  built  in  all  sizes, 
from  i  horse  power  to  as  many  as  required  for  a  76-foot  cruis- 
ing yacht. 

The  Westinghousc  Motors. 
In  Fig.  290  and  following  we  illustrate  the  general  features 


FlG.  290. — THE   VVESTINGHOUSE  THREE-CYLINDER  MOTOR. 

and  details  of  the  Westinghouse  Gas  Engine  of  the  Westing- 
house  Machine  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.  In  their  general  appearance 
the  motors  of  this  company  bear  a  marked  resemblance  to  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


359 


Westinghouse  Steam  Engines.  They  are  built  in  two  and  three- 
cylinder  patterns,  and  of  the  latter  of  sizes  up  to  from  650  to 
1,500  horse  power. 

The  large  experience  of  this  company  in  the  building  and 
operation  of  compact  high-speed  vertical  multi-cylinder  steam 
engines  has  given  them  facilities  of  design,  which  has  greatly 


FlG.  291. — SECTIONAL  ELEVATION   OF  THE   WESTINGHOUSE, 

aided  in  perfecting  and  giving  a  substantial  form  to  their  gas  and 
gasoline  engines,  with  a  marvelous  regulation  of  speed,  and  so 
.suiting  these  motors  for  electric  generating  power. 

The  sectional  elevation  of  one  cylinder  of  a  three-cylinder  en- 


360 


GAS,    GASOLINF,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


gine  is  shown  in  Fig.  291  locating  the  position  of  the  valve  mechan- 
ism and  igniter.  A  is  the  shaft  which  carries  the  exhaust  valve 
cams,  and  is  driven  by  gears  from  the  main  shaft.  Each  exhaust 
cam  works  against  a  roller  carried  on  the  free  end  of  the  guide 
lever  G.  The  exhaust  valve  E  has  a  long  stem  projecting  down- 
ward and  resting  on  a  hardened  steel  plate  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  guide  lever  G.  The  spring  surrounding  the  stem  serves  to 


FlG.  292. — GOVERNOR,    TWO-CYLINDER   ENGINE. 


hold  the  exhaust  valve  to  its  seat  and  the  stem  in  contact  with 
the  guide  lever.  From  the  exhaust  cam  shaft  A  a  horizontal 
shaft  with  bevel  gears  leads  to  the  opposite  side  cf  the  engine, 
engaging  with  a  vertical  shaft,  not  shown,  which  in  turn  drives 
the  upper  cam  shaft  B.  Incidentally,  the  vertical  shaft  carries  the 
governor.  The  upper  cam  shaft  carries  two  cams  for  each  cylin- 
der. One  engages  against  a  roller  on  the  end  of  the  horizontal 
lever  C.  As  the  throw  side  of  this  cam  comes  uppermost,  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  361 

opposite  end  of  the  lever  C  depresses  the  stem  of  the  inlet  valve 
J,  opening  the  latter  for  the  admission  of  the  mixture  of  gas 
and  air.  A  spring  on  the  stem  of  the  inlet  valve  furnishes  a 
means  for  closing  it  and  keeping  the  cam  and  roller  always  in 
contact  with  each  other.  Immediately  adjacent  to  the  inlet  valve 
cam  is  the  ignitor  cam,  which  at  the  proper  instant  operates  a 
horizontal  plunger  working  through  the  guide  D  to  break  the 
electric  current  through  the  wire  S  at  the  terminals  of  the  ignitor 


fcfcr 


FlG.    293. — GOVERNOR    AND    VALVE    GEAR    ON    THREE  CYLINDER   ENGINE. 

F,  which  are  of  the  hammer  type  and  duplicated  for  a  double 
spark. 

The  gas  and  air  enter  the  mixing  chamber  M  by  separate 
inlets,  in  proportionate  amounts  fixed  by  the  attendant,  and 
through  the  mixing  device  to  the  port  N,  and  passage  to  the  inlet 
valve  J.  The  cooling  water  entering  at  H  passes  through  the 
cylinder  jacket  and  head,  makes  its  exit  at  K. 


362  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

In  Fig.  293  is  shown  the  governor  for  the  two-cylinder  en- 
gine, which  is  of  the  flyball  type  and  located  directly  under  the 
valve  stems  that  regulate  the  volume  of  the  charge,  so  that  the 
regulation  of  the  engine  is  made  by  the  amount  of  the  charge 
and  not  by  hit  and  miss  impulses.  A  lever  and  index  at  the  top 
of  the  mixing  chamber  controls  the  gas  inlet,  and  another  at  the 
bottom  controls  the  air  inlet,  so  that  the  proportion  of  the  mix- 
ture may  be  made  a  set  regulation,  while  the  volume  of  the  charge 
is  regulated  by  the  governor  without  changing  the  proportion  of 
the  mixture. 

In  the  three-cylinder  engine  the  one  regulating  valve  and 
governor  controls  the  impulse  of  each  cylinder  alike,  and  to 
accommodate  the  positions  of  the  driving  gear  and  valve  the 
motion  of  the  governor  is  transmitted  to  the  valve  through  a 
rock  shaft  and  levers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  293.  The  rock  shaft  and 
lever  are  shown  directly  under  the  mixing  chamber  M  in  Fig.  292. 

The  Diesel  Motor. 

This  motor  is  an  innovation  upon  all  former  ideals  in  ex- 
plosive power  and  indicates  the  "Ultima  Thule"  of  explosive 
motor  compression,  and  possibly  the  limit  of  fuel  economy  in  this 
type  of  prime  movers.  Mr.  Diesel  has  attempted  to  realize, 
within  the  limitations  of  practice,  an  approach  to  the  conditions 
of  the  "Carnot  Cycle"  by  the  production  of  a  motor  of  very  high 
thermal  efficiency.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  result  it  was  evi- 
dent that  a  much  higher  degree  of  compression  was  necessary 
than  that  used  in  existing  motors,  since  it  was  demanded  that  the 
charge  be  compressed  adiabatically  to  the  maximum  initial  pres- 
sure at  which  the  motor  was  to  be  operated,  this  pressure  not  to 
be  exceeded  by  the  gases  generated  during  the  combustion.  Such 
a  compression  would  naturally  produce  an  increase  in  temperature 
sufficient  to  ignite  the  combustible,  and  hence  it  became  apparent 
that  the  fuel  must  not  be  introduced  with  the  air,  but  that  the  air 
must  first  be  compressed  adiabatically  and  that  the  fuel  must  then 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF  ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 

be  introduced  and  burned  during  the  out-stroke  of  the  piston 
isothermally,  if  the  desired  cycle  was  to  be  practically  realized. 

In  the  Diesel  motor  the  high  temperature  attained  by  the  com- 
pression of  the  air  is  sufficient  to  provide  for  the  ignition  of  the 


FlG.   294. — 30   HORSE   POWER   DIESEL   MOTOR. 


combustible,  and  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  fuel  to  be  injected 
into  the  heated  air  for  its  ignition  and  combustion  to  take  place. 

In  his  theoretical  discussion  of  the  subject,  Mr.  Diesel  laid 
down  four  conditions  as  essential  to  the  realization  of  the  highest 
•economy : 

First,  that  the  combustion  temperature  must  be  attained  not 

X^rm"^> 

•fg'     Of  THE          >- 


364  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES 

by  the  combustion,  and  during  the  same,  but  before,  and  inde- 
pendent of  it,  by  the  compression  of  pure  air. 

Second,  that  this  is  best  accomplished  by  deviating  from  the 
pure  Carnot  cycle  to  the  extent  of  combining  two  of  the  stages 
of  the  cycle,  and  directly  compressing  the  air  adiabatically, 
instead  of  first  isothermally  from  2  to  4  atmospheres,  and  then 
adiabatically  to  30  or  40  fold. 

Third,  that  the  fuel  be  introduced  gradually  into  the  com- 
pressed air,  and  burned  with  little  or  no  increase  in  temperature 
during  the  period  of  combustion. 

Fourth,  that  a  considerable  surplus  of  air  be  present. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  conditions  that  a  motor  to  meet 
them,  although  operating  upon  the  so-called  "four-cycle"  principle, 
must  differ  essentially  from  engines  of  the  Otto  type,  and  it  was 
to  realize  these  conditions  that  the  Diesel  motor  was  designed. 

In  general  construction  it  resembles  the  design  of  a  vertical 
steam  engine,  except  that  all  parts  are  built  to  stand  the  high 
pressure  employed. 

The  working  cycle  is  as  follows : 

On  one  down-stroke  the  main  cylinder  is  completely  filled  with 
pure  air,  the  next  up-stroke  compresses  this  to  about  35  atmos- 
pheres, creating  a  temperature  more  than  sufficient  to  ignite  the 
fuel.  At  the  beginning  of  the  next  down-stroke,  the  fuel  valve 
opens,  and  the  petroleum,  atomized  by  passing  through  a  spool 
of  fine  wire  netting,  is  injected  during  a  predetermined  part  of  the 
stroke  into  this  red-hot  air,  resulting  in  combustion  controlled  as 
to  pressure  and  temperature.  This  injection  is  made  possible  by 
the  air  in  the  starting  tank,  which  is  kept  by  the  small  air-pump 
at  a  pressure  some  5  or  10  atmospheres  greater  than  that  in  the 
main  cylinder.  A  small  quantity  of  this  air  enters  with  the  fuel 
charge,  which  it  atomizes  as  described.  When  the  motor  is 
running  at  full  load,  a  very  small  quantity  of  injected  air  suffices, 
and  the  pressure  in  the  air  tank  steadily  rises.  At  half  load,  with 
less  fuel  injected,  more  air  passes  in.  For  this  reason,  the  start- 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  36$ 


FlG.   295. — SECTION    OF    THE    DIESEL    MOTOE, 


366  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

ing  tank  is  made  large  enough  to  equalize  these  differences,  and 
a  small  safety  valve  is  provided  on  the  air-pump. 

The  petroleum  is  pumped  into  the  fuel  valve  casing  by  a 
small  oil-pump  bolted  to  the  base-plate.  This  pump  is  arranged 
to  pump  a  fixed  maximum  quantity  of  petroleum.  A  by-pass  is 
provided  so  that  this  whole  quantity,  or  any  portion  of  it,  can  be 
returned  to  the  supply  tank.  The  governor  controls  the  action 
of  this  by-pass  valve,  closing  it  just  long  enough  to  compel  the 
exact  quantity  of  the  fuel  required  to  pass  into  the  fuel  valve 
casing.  The  full  charge  of  air  being  always  supplied  for  com- 
plete combustion,  it  matters  not  whether  the  governor  permits 
one  or  fifty  drops  of  petroleum  to  enter  the  working  cylinder  at 
each  motor  stroke,  the  combustion  is  always  complete.  To  stop 
the  motor  it  is  only  necessary  to  close  the  valve  which  admits  the 
petroleum  into  the  fuel  valve  casing.  The  valve  gear  consists  of 
a  series  of  cams  placed  on  a  shaft  journaled  on  brackets  cast  on 
the  cylinder. 

The  highest  efficiency  indicated  has  been  found  to  be  37  per 
cent,  at  full  load  and  41  per  cent,  at  half  load,  with  a  brake  effi- 
ciency at  full  load  of  25  per  cent,  and  at  half  load  19  per  cent. 
These  high  efficiencies  are  probably  due  to  perfect  combustion 
under  high  pressure,  which  is  an  essential  feature  of  this  motor. 
In  Fig.  295  is  illustrated  a  vertical  section  of  the  Diesel  motor 
in  which  A  is  the  cylinder,  B  piston,  D  air  pump,  E  oil  pump 
lever,  F  cam  shaft  driven  by  screw  and  bevel  gear  from  the  main 
shaft,  H  bell  crank  valve  lever,  I  inlet  oil  valve,  J  clearance  space, 
K  inlet  air  valve  gear,  L  exhaust  valve  gear,  M  oil  valve  lever,  N 
high  pressure  air  tank,  O  valve  rod,  R  water  jacket,  S  water- 
cooled  cylinder  head,  T  oil  pump,  U  oil  pump  piston,  V  oil  pump 
connecting  rod. 

The  largest  size  of  these  motors  in  use  is  a  Ihree-cylinder 
model  of  150  horse  power.  The  offices  of  the  Diesel  Motor  Co. 
of  America  are  at  No.  n  Broadway,  New  York  City. 


• 

VARIOUS  TYPES   OF  ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  367 

The  Lozier  Marine  Gasoline  Engine. 

The  great  increase  in  the  use  of  motor  power  for  pleasure 
boats  and  as  an  auxiliary  power  in  yachts  has  given  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  designing  and  building  of  gasoline  motors  for  this 
special  service,  of  which  we  illustrate  in  Fig.  296  and  following 
the  neat  and  compact  motors  of  the  Lozier  Motor  Company, 


FIG.   296.— LOZTER   LAUNCH   ENGINE. 

Plattsburg,  N.  Y.  They  are  of  the  two-cycle  water-jacket  type, 
built  in  sizes  with  single  cylinders  from  il/2  to  Jl/2  horse  power, 
and  with  double  cylinders  from  10  to  15  horse  power.  The 
company  also  build  an  elegant  model  of  launches  and  covered 
motor  boats.  In  operation  the  gasoline  is  vaporized  in  a  separate 
compartment  from  the  crank  chamber  in  which  it  is  atomized 
in  contact  with  warm  air  drawn  from  a  jacket  over  the  exhaust 


368 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


pipe,  vaporized  as  an  explosive  mixture,  and  then  passes  into  the 
crank  chamber  by  the  draft  of  the  upstroke  of  the  piston.  A 
check  valve  at  the  crank  chamber  inlet  allows  of  compression  on 
the  down  stroke  of  the  piston. 

In  the  passage  between  the  crank  chamber  and  charging  port 
in  the  cylinder  is  located  a  regulating  throttle,  shown  just  over 


FlG.   297. — LOZIER   TWO-CYLINDER    ENGINE. 


the  flywheel  in  Fig.  296.     Ignition  is  by  a  break  or  hammer  con- 
tact, as  shown  in  the  detail  figure. 

The  electric  current  is  generated  by  a  magneto  driven  by  a 
friction  gear  at  the  rim  of  the  flywheel  and  fixed  in  position  with 
jointed  attachment  to  the  flange  on  the  crank  case  with  spring 
tension.  A  battery  for  use  as  an  auxiliary  in  starting  makes 


VARIOUS   TYPI-S   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  369 

the  ignition  equipment  complete.     The  magneto  is  well  shown  in 
place  in  Fig.  298. 

The  propellers  used  with  these  motors  are  of  the  reversible 
blade  type  and  are  quickly  handled  for  all  positions  by  the  move- 
ment of  a  lever. 


FlG.   298. — LOZIER   MAGNETO    GENERATOR. 


There  is  a  novelty  in  the  operation  of  the  Lozier  motor,  in 
that  a  rotary  pump  driven  by  a  sprocket  chain  from  the  main 
shaft  drives  the  cooling  water  through  the  cylinder  jacket  and 
jacketed  head  and  out  around  the  exhaust  pipe  into  the  muffler 


37°  ,  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

with  the  gases  of  combustion  and  finally  discharges  with  the  ex- 
haust below  the  water  line.  In  this  manner  all  odors  and  noise 
from  the  exhaust  are  eliminated. 

This  motor  is  well  adapted  as  an  auxiliary  power  for  sailing 


WATER  JACKET -'LL 


FlG.   29Q.— SECTIONAL   DETAIL   OF   THE    LOZIER   MOTOR. 


yachts  and,  together  with  a  large  launch  service,  is  much  in 
evidence  on  the  waters  of  Lake  Champlain.  The  launches  are  of 
elegant  model  and  rigged  as  open,  canopied  and  house  boats. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


371 


The  Marsh  Motor  and  Motor  Bicycle. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  301  one  of  the  latest  improvements  in 
motor  bicycles  which  are  now  taking  a  prominent  lead  in  our 
methods  of  locomotion.  The  general  design  and  arrangement  of 
the  motor  parts  seem  to  be  faultless.  The  belt  transmission  with 
a  tightening  pulley  appears  to  be  in  the  line  of  best  practice  for 


FlG.  300.— AIR-COOLED    MOTOR. 


easy  motion  and  freedom  from  the  jerky  action  of  sprocket  wheels 
and  chain.  The  diameter  of  the  motor  pulley  is  3  inches,  driving 
on  an  i8-inch  pulley  on  rear  wheel,  6  to  I ;  cylinder  2^>  inches 
by  2^4  inches  stroke.  A  carburetter  of  the  constant  level  type, 
which  atomizes  and  vaporizes  the  gasoline  by  the  indraft  of  the 


372 


GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 


piston,  is  located  within  the  frame.  The  gasoline  tank  under  the 
top  tube  of  the  frame  holds  fuel  for  an  So-mile  run.  An  ample 
dry  battery  and  sparking  apparatus  is  located  on  the  back  tube 


of  the  frame,  presenting  altogether  one  of  the  neatest  motor 
bicycles  that  we  have  seen.  Weight  complete,  90  pounds. 
Cost,  $175. 

These  bicycles  and  motors  are  made  by  the  Motor  Cycle  Co., 
Brockton,  Mass. 


• 
VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND   MOTORS.  373 

The  Mitchell  Motor  Cycle. 

We  illustrate  in  Fig.  302  a  motor  bicycle  made  by  the  Wis- 
consin Wheel  Works,  Racine,  Wis.  The  general  model  is  of  the 
ordinary  type  with  a  diamond  tube  frame  with  stronger  reinforce- 
ments than  used  in  the  foot  power  machines.  The  motor  is  of  the 
ribbed  four-cycle  type  for  air-cooling  with  a  3-inch  by  3-inch  diam- 
eter and  stroke  cylinder.  The  motor  runs  up  to  1,400  revolutions 
per  minute ;  it  drives  the  bicycle  by  a  rawhide  band  and  pulleys  of 
varying  sizes,  suitable  for  heavy  and  light  road  work,  or  hill 


FlG.   302. — MOTOR   BICYCLE. 

climbing.  An  adjustable  tightening  pulley  makes  the  one  band 
suitable  for  all  speeds.  Weight  of  the  complete  outfit  120  pounds. 
Tank  supply,  seven  pints  of  gasoline,  which  gives  a  mileage  of 
from  60  to  70  miles.  The  ignition  is  by  jump  spark  from  a  pair 
of  dry  batteries  attached  to  the  frame  behind  the  seat  and  an 
induction  coil  under  the  seat,  the  gasoline  being  stored  in  a  nar- 
row case  inside  the  frame  near  the  motor. 

A  lever  convenient  to  the  right  hand  lifts  the  exhaust  valve 
for  ease  of  starting  and  allows  of  coasting  with  the  gasoline  cut 
off,  thus  cooling  the  motor  and  saving  fuel. 


374 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


The  Truscott  Launches  and  Motors. 

Motors   of  the   Truscott   Boat   Manufacturing  Company,    St. 
Joseph,  Mich.     The  special  output  of  this  company  are  four  and 


FIG.  303.— FOUR-CYCLE  SINGLE  MOTOR. 


two-cycle  gasoline  motors  for  launches,  cabin  boats  and  sailing 
yachts.  Their  boats  are  of  exceptionally  fine  model,  and  are 
much  in  evidence  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

There  is   a  studied  elegance  in  their  design  and  finish  and 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES   AND    MOTORS.  3/5 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


FlG.  305. — THE   SPARKING   GEAR. 


I 


•ii 


FlG.  306. — REVERSING   PROPELLER. 


their  motors  are  no  less  so ;   for  the  experience  of  the  builders  has 
brought  out  the  best  proportions  in  the  individual  parts  and  the 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS. 


377 


best  material  for  the  continued  operation  of  a  marine  motor,  that 
failures  may  not  be  the  cause  of  disaster. 

We  illustrate  in  Figs.  303  and  304  the  important  sectional  de- 


FlG.  307. — TWO-CYCLE   SINGLE  MOTOR. 


tails  of  the  single  and  double  cylinder,  four-cycle  marine  motors.. 
They  also  build  three  and  four  cylinder  motors  on  a  single  shaft 
up  to  40  horse  power.  In  Fig.  307  we  illustrate  the  detail 
section  of  the  two-cycle  motor  which  is  built  in  units  of  one,  two,. 


378 


GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF    ENGINES   AND    MOTORS. 


379 


and  three  cylinders.     Their  design  is  in  the  general  form  of  this 
class  of  vertical  motors  and  iz  well  shown  in  Fig.  307.     It  will 


"be  noted  that  the  thrust  bearing  is  of  the  ball  bearing  type.  The 
ignition  device  is  of  the  snap  hammer  adjustable  type  illustrated 
in  detail  in  Fig.  305.  The  insulated  spindle  is  made  adjustable  by 


38o 


GAS,   GASOLINE,  AND   OIL  ENGINES. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  381 

a  thread  from  end  to  end  which  allows  it  to  be  screwed  up  or 
down  to  meet  the  time  of  the  hammer  break.  An  automatic  tim- 
ing device  in  the  balance  wheel  is  so  designed  that  at  starting 
the  motor  the  spark  is  made  at  a  moment  that  follows  the  crank 
center,  and  as  the  speed  increases  the  centrifugal  action  causes 
the  timing  of  the  spark  to  fall  back  to  a  moment  before  the  crank 
center,  thus  avoiding  the  possibility  of  starting  backward. 

The  Secor  Engine. 

Manufacturers  of  small  steam  plants  report  that  the  gas  engine 
has  made  serious  inroads  into  their  trade.  This  appears  to  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  internal  combustion  engine  has  unques- 
tionably attained  a  thermal  efficiency  in  advance  of  the  steam  en- 
gine; and  it  also  has  the  practical  advantage  over  steam  power, 
of  labor  saving,  space  saving,  and  weight  saving;  but  notwith- 
standing the  increasing  demand  for  gas  engines  caused  by  the 
marked  improvement  in  the  modern  engine  over  the  "Street"  gas 
engine  of  1794,  the  steam  engine  still  retains  its  commercial 
supremacy.  The  fact  that  85  per  cent  of  all  the  power  used  in 
America  for  industrial  purposes  is  generated  by  steam  plants 
and  about  10  per  cent  is  obtained  from  water  power,  while  of  the 
total  power  employed  for  industrial  uses,  only  a  fraction  is  sup- 
plied by  the  internal  combustion  engine,  indicates  unquestionably 
that,  notwithstanding  thermodynamic  efficiency  and  labor  saving 
are  important  considerations,  the  marketability  of  an  engine  is 
based  only  on  commercial  efficiency,  which  is  itself  the  product  of 
many  other  factors,  and  therefore  more  complex  and  less  easily 
analyzed  than  thermodynamic  efficiency. 

Mr.  John  A.  Secor,  of  New  York,  has  for  several  years  been 
engaged  in  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  internally  fired  engine  with 
the  view  of  increasing,  if  possible,  its  commercial  efficiency.  His 
researches  have  included  not  only  the  thermodynamics,  mechan- 
ism and  performance  of  the  internal  combustion  engine,  but  also 
the  commercial  value  and  availability  of  all  obtainable  fuels.  As 
a  result  of  these  investigations,  he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 


382  GAS,  GASOLINE,  AND  OIL  ENGINES. 


FIG.    311.— SECOR,  OIL  ELECTRIC  PLANT,   STANDARD   STEEL  FRAME  TYPE. 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  383 

when  the  engine  which  needs  neither  boiler  nor  fireman  can  show 
an  operating  cost  less  than  steam,  combined  with  a  performance 
and  availability  equal  to  steam,  it  will  have  a  field  of  usefulness 
far  greater  than  steam  engines  now  occupy.  Industrial  statis- 
ticians no  longer  classing  it  among  auxiliary  powers,  it  will  rank 
first  among  prime  movers. 

Experience  has  repeatedly  demonstrated  than  an  engine  highly 
specialized,  or  improved  in  any  one  feature,  is  in  less  demand, 
commercially,  than  the  ordinary  gas  engine.  Such  important 
advantages,  for  example,  as  the  ability  to  use  a  better  fuel  than 
gasoline,  or  a  considerable  increase  in  thermodynamic  efficiency, 
is  rendered  commercially  abortive  if  accompanied  by  low  me- 
chanical efficiency,  increased  wear,  imperfect  regulation,  increased 
vibration,  or  excessive  weight;  current  engineering  criticism 
suggested  the  desirability  of  simultaneous  improvement  along 
three  distinct  lines,  each  of  these  lines  of  course  including  special 
desiderata  of  supreme  importance  as  determining  factors  in  the 
problem  of  increasing  the  commercial  efficiency  of  the  internal 
combustion  engine.  Primarily,  every  element  of  mechanical  in- 
feriority must  be  eliminated;  secondarily,  the  fuel  flexibility 
should  be  increased  and  the  engine  adapted  to  use  some  low-cost 
and  universally  available  fuel ;  and  finally,  if  the  performance  in 
any  particular  is  inferior  to  that  of  a  high  grade  steam  engine, 
it  must  be  improved  until  it  is  fully  equal  to  standard  steam 
engine  performance.  The  problem,  therefore,  which  Mr.  Secor 
attacked,  was  to  produce  an  engine  which  should  be  equal  me- 
chanically to  the  steam  engine,  without  being  restricted  to  gas 
or  gasoline  for  fuel,  and  which  should  also  show  such  operative 
performance  as  would  satisfy  the  most  exacting  conditions  of  in- 
dustrial service. 

The  Secor  Engine  as  a  Machine. 

As  the  basic  idea  of  this  engine  was  to  include  and  harmoni- 
ously co-ordinate  all  factors  essential  to  high  commercial  ef- 
ficiency, it  was  considered  important  to  combine  in  its  design  the 


384  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

elements  of  accessibility  to  working  parts,  compactness,  durability, 
simplicity,  strength,  reliability,  and  reduced  weight.  Among  the 
factors  which  have  contributed  to  its  remarkable  success  is  the 
mechanical  excellence  of  its  design  and  construction.  The  design 


FlG.    312. — SECOR   ENGINE,    JUNIOR   TYPE. 

preferably  adopted  resembles  somewhat  the  vertical  marine  type 
now  being  largely  used  in  important  stationary  steam  engine  in- 
stallations. The  cylinder  rests  on  columns  of  open  hearth  steel, 
diagonally  braced  by  steel  tension  rods.  The  frame  combines  the 
maximum  of  strength  with  the  minimum  of  weight,  and  although 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  385 

the  cylinder  and  crank  shaft  are  heavier  than  in  the  usual  prac- 
tice, the  moderate  weight  of  the  engine  bed,  frame,  and  fly-wheels 
effects  a  marked  reduction  in  weight  of  the  complete  engine.  The 
open  frame  of  course  permits  ready  access  to  the  main  bearings, 
crank  pin  and  connecting  rod.  All  journals  are  unusually  large  in 
diameter  and  length  and  special  provision  is  made  for  copious 
lubrication.  The  mechanical  efficiency  of  these  engines  is  85 
per  cent.  An  engine  of  special  design  with  enclosed  frame  is 
made  in  sizes  below  20  horse  power  and  is  known  as  "The  Secor 
Junior."  These  are  designed  so  as  to  be  as  nearly  automatic  as 
possible  and  require  little  attention  beside  filling  the  fuel  reservoir 
and  cleaning. 

The  cover  for  the  cylinder  and  valve  chest,  both  in  the  Standard 
and  Junior  types,  is  made  in  a  single  casting,  which  when  re- 
moved, exposes  the  whole  interior  of  the  engine  without  dis- 
turbing any  of  the  working  mechanism.  The  shaft  is  carefully 
balanced  by  crank  counterweights,  and  the  connecting  rod  is  of  the 
English  high  speed  marine  type.  The  engine  operates  on  the  Beau 
de  Rochas  cycle.  Cam  operated  poppet  valves  with  spring  closure 
are  employed.  The  cam  shaft  is  actuated  by  a  vertical  lay  shaft 
which  is  connected  to  the  crank  shaft  below,  and  the  cam  shaft 
above  by  helical  gears.  The  governor  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
lay  shaft  by  which  it  is  operated,  the  object  being  to  permit  close 
connection  between  the  governor  and  the  air  and  oil  inlet  valves. 
In  engines  of  the  Junior  type  the  governor  is  attached  to  the 
hub  of  the  driving  pulley  and  is  protected  by  the  pulley.  Speed 
regulation  is  accomplished  by  automatically  varying  the  pressure 
of  the  working  impulses  so  as  to  balance  the  engine  load.  Elec- 
trical ignition  of  the  hammer-break  type  is  used  in  these  engines. 
The  igniter  is  a  removable  plug  inserted  in  the  cylinder  head  over 
the  valve  box  and  secured  by  two  bolts  through  a  projecting 
flange.  The  binding  posts  for  connecting  the  wire  which  con- 
ducts the  electric  current  and  the  terminals  inside  the  valve  box, 
as  well  as  the  mechanism  for  making  and  breaking  the  current  to 
produce  the  igniting  spark  are  attached  to  the  igniter  plug.  The 


386  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND   OIL  ENGINES. 

battery  is  connected  to  a  switch  so  arranged  that  the  direction  of 
the  current  through  the  igniting  apparatus  may  be  periodically 
reversed. 

The  Fuel  Problem. 

The  discovery  of  petroleum  in  large  quantities  in  Europe  and 
America  appears  opportunely  to  supply  the  missing  link  which 
will  render  the  internal  combustion  engine  available  for  general 
use,  inasmuch  as  commercial  mineral  oil,  commonly  known  as 
kerosene,  includes  every  essential  quality  of  a  satisfactory  com- 
bustible. Considered  solely  as  a  fuel  oil  for  the  generation  of 
power  for  industrial  uses,  kerosene  is  without  a  rival.  It  is  the 
only  known  fuel  combining  the  following  advantages :  ( I )  It 
is  safe;  (2)  its  cost  is  always  low;  (3)  it  is  obtainable  every- 
where; (4)  it  possesses  the  highest  thermodynamic  value;  (5) 
its  chemical  constitution  is  more  constant  than  any  other  com- 
mercial hydrocarbon ;  (6)  when  stored  for  long  periods  or  even 
exposed  in  open  tanks  it  is  not  subject  to  change  from  varying 
temperatures  or  other  atmospheric  conditions.  Kerosene,  there- 
fore, as  a  fuel  combines  the  essential  elements  which  are  most 
important  as  contributing  factors  toward  commercial  efficiency 
in  an  engine.  The  commonly  used  fuels,  city  gas  and  gasoline, 
are  totally  unsuited  for  fuel,  as  they  are  variable  in  quality,  costly 
and  not  everywhere  obtainable. 

The  duty  of  the  engine  is  to  convert  the  potential  energy  of 
fuel  into  available  mechanical  power.  The  mechanism  must  per- 
form the  functions  of  receiving,  transmitting  and  controlling 
mechanical  energy  resulting  from  recurring  chemical  reactions. 
Commercial  efficiency  demands  that  the  control  should  be  absolute 
and  continuous,  from  the  inception  of  kinetic  energy  to  its  trans- 
mission from  the  engine  shaft  as  power.  In  fact,,  the  control 
must  precede  the  chemical  reaction,  for  commercial  efficiency  re- 
quires that  every  element  of  uncertainty  connected  with  the 
chemical  operation  of  the  engine  be  reduced  to  the  utmost  mini- 
mum, or  abolished  altogether.  To  achieve  this  control,  and  abol- 
ish uncertainty,  all  the  conditions  affecting  the  combustion  must 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  387 

be  subjected  to  positive  and  automatic  mechanical  control,  so 
that  it  shall  be  impossible  for  them  to  vary  without  actual  and 
sensible  derangement  of  working  parts.  In  proportion  as  this  is 
accomplished,  and  only  in  proportion,  does  mechanical  certainty 
take  the  place  of  conjecture,  and  reliability  become  a  question 
merely  of  the  number,  intricacy  and  durability  of  the  several 
parts.  To  utilize  the  heavy  oils  commercially  is  a  difficult  matter. 
In  an  engine  working  under  the  ordinary  industrial  conditions  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  simultaneously  for  both  correct  combus- 
tion and  satisfactory  speed  regulation.  Under  conditions  purely 
academic,  or  nearly  constant,  no  great  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
using  kerosene  either  for  illuminating  or  fuel  purposes;  but  it 
has  always  been  a  difficult  problem  to  vary  the  illumination  of  an 
oil  lamp  or  the  power  of  an  oil  engine  without  adversely  affecting 
combustion.  According  to  the  usual  method  the  fuel  oil  is  supplied 
to  a  heated  chamber,  where  it  undergoes  vaporization  before  en- 
tering the  cylinder  and  partially  mixing  with  the  air,  but  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  design  a  vaporizer  which  will  operate 
satisfactorily  at  all  loads  and  under  all  conditions.  If  the  tem- 
perature of  the  vaporizer  is  too  low  the  oil  cannot  vaporize  and 
the  engine  will  finally  stop,  while  on  the  other  hand  if  the  tem- 
perature is  too  high,  partial  decomposition  of  the  oil  takes  place 
prematurely,  causing  the  deposit  of  a  carbon  residue  which  after 
sufficient  accumulation  cavvses  the  vaporizer  to  work  improperly ; 
if  by  careful  manipulation  these  two  extremes  are  avoided,  even 
a  slight  change  in  temperature  will  in  some  cases  prevent  correct 
regulation,  inasmuch  as  any  alteration  whatever  in  temperature 
will  increase  or  decrease  the  volume  of  oil  vapor  and  thereby 
reduce  or  increase  the  thermal  units  contained  in  a  given  charge. 
Every  form  of  vaporizer  has  some  detracting  feature  which  pre- 
vents accurate  governing  and  perfect  combustion,  excepting 
when  adjusted  to  constant  conditions  of  weather  and  load. 

In  the  Secor  engine  the  fuel  enters  the  cylinder  in  its  liquid 
form,  without  pre-heating.  The  following  postulates  form  the 
basis  of  the  system  of  fuel  supply : 


388  GAS,    GASOLINE,   AND    OIL   ENGINES. 

a.  It  is  desirable  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  fuel  flexi- 
bility to  employ  a  system  of  fuel  feed  that  can  be  easily  adapted 
to  suit  either  gaseous  or  liquid  fuel. 

b.  To  insure  positive  starting,  the  fuel  supplying  mechanism 
must  automatically  prevent  the  passage  of  any  fuel  to  the  motor 
cylinder,  or  any  approach  thereto  when  the  engine  is  not  in  mo- 
tion, regardless  of  the  position  assumed  by  the  working  mechan- 
ism at  the  time  the  engine  ceases  operation. 

c.  To  insure  positive  starting,  the  fuel  supplying  mechanism 
should  automatically   furnish  only  the  requisite  supply   of   fuel 
during  the   "starting   up"   of   the   engine,   always   automatically 
avoiding  an  excessive  supply  whether  the  engine  starts  rapidly  or 
slowly.    The  absence  of  this  feature  causes  uncertainty  in  starting 
and  may  result  in  danger  to  the  operator. 

d.  The  fuel  supplying  mechanism  should  automatically  insure 
absolute  certainty  of  results  during  the  continuous  operation  of 
an  engine  by  preserving  at  all  times  the  proper  chemical  relations 
between  the  fuel  and  the  air  which  constitutes  the  explosive  mix- 
ture from  which  the  energy  is  derived.     In  order  to  obtain  this 
result  regardless  of  external  weather  conditions  or  internal  load 
conditions  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  a  more  precise  and  homo- 
geneous mixture  than  has  heretofore  been  considered  essential. 

e.  It  was  considered  desirable  to  automatically  provide  for 
increased  safety,  by  reducing  to  a  minimum  the  quantity  of  liquid 
fuel  at  the  engine  or  in  the  engine  room,  and  in  order  to  accom- 
plish this  the  main  fuel  supply  for  the  standard  type  of  engine  is 
contained  preferably  in  riveted  steel  tanks  placed  below  the  en- 
gine in  brick  vaults  or  underground.     The  supply  in  the  engine 
room  is  contained  in  a  small  reservoir  attached  to  the  engine  itself 
and  similar  to  the  usual  lubricating  oil  cup. 

These  postulates  embodied  in  automatic  methods  of  precision 
are  covered  by  patents  which  include : 

i.  A  fuel  feed  which  is  alternative,  and  which  increases  fuel 
flexibility  by  permitting  the  use  of  gaseous  or  liquid  fuel  as  de- 
sired, by  changing  the  fuel  inlet  valve,  and  which  also  provides 


VARIOUS   TYPES   OF   ENGINES  AND   MOTORS.  389 

means  for  measuring  micrometrically  a  homogeneous  and  rela- 
tively uniform  combustible  mixture  of  hydrocarbon  and  air. 

2.  A  direct  means  of  using  fluid  fuel,  which  provides  for  the 
most  efficient  utilization  of  the  low-cost  hydrocarbons  by  auto- 
matic atmospheric  pressure  supply  of  cold  fuel,  dispensing  with 
the  vaporizer,  and  obviating  all  forms  of  either  forced  or  gravity 
feed ;  either  of  which  is  absolutely  fatal  to  precision  in  continuous 
working,  beside  being  considered  unsafe  as  an  underwriter's  risk. 
The  use  of  a  combustible  mixture  in  which  the  fuel  is  at  atmo- 
spheric temperature  and  pressure,  is  peculiar  to  this  system. 

3.  Positive  starting  and  continuously  steady  operation  are 
assured  by  automatically  providing  positive  starting  conditions, 
which   automatically   change   as   required,   to   positive   operative 
conditions,  which  again  automatically  change  when  the  engine  is 
stopped  to  positive  stand-by  conditions. 

4.  A  positive  governing  system,  which  automatically  varies 
the  working  pressure  with  the  utmost  exactness  to  suit  load  re- 
quirements. 

The  special  designs  and  constructive  methods  used  in  these 
engines  are  also  covered  by  design  and  construction  patents. 

Performance  of  the  Secor  Engine. 

These  engines  are  now  superseding  steam  engines  with  satis- 
factory results  in  important  industrial  plants;  especially  in  ma- 
chine shops  where  the  power  is  subject  to  almost  constant  varia- 
tion. In  every  case  the  performance  is  equal  to  that  of  a  steam 
plant,  although  the  cost  of  operating  is  much  less.  Perhaps  no 
one  factor  has  had  a  more  wholesome  influence  in  developing  the 
commercial  efficiency  of  this  engine  than  the  effort  to  adapt  it  to 
the  requirements  of  incandescent  electric  lighting,  and  more  par- 
ticularly to  plants  of  the  direct  connected  type.  When  the  lamps 
are  supplied  by  direct  current  from  a  plant  of  this  type  without 
employing  an  intermediate  storage  battery,  the  conditions  are 
much  more  exacting  than  for  pumping,  or  ordinary  power  pur- 
poses. 


3QO  GAS,   GASOLINE,   AND   OIL   ENGINES. 

If  a  25  horse  power  engine,  for  example,  falls  a  little  short  of 
its  rated  power,  or  is  inferior  in  other  respects,  it  cannot  operate 
continuously  for  10  or  12  hours,  250  16  candle  power  lamps,  each 
requiring  50  to  70  watts,  nor  furnish  a  commercially  steady  light, 
automatically  and  irrespective  of  the  number  of  lamps  thrown  in 
or  out  of  circuit,  with  economy,  and  without  readjustment  or 
undue  wear  or  distress  of  any  kind.  Nor  can  it,  like  a  steam 
plant,  continue  this  for  20  years  or  more  without  requiring  more 
than  a  nominal  cost  for  "upkeep,"  unless  it  possesses  all  those 
elements  which  are  combined  in  the  best  steam  plant. 

The  ability  to  readily  determine  by  means  of  electrical  tests 
the  load  carried  at  any  time  by  an  engine  operating  electric  light 
or  power  plants  and  to  ascertain  with  absolute  precision  the  speed 
regulation  under  varying  loads,  as  well  as  the  accurate  check 
as  to  cost  of  operating  afforded  by  a  knowledge  of  the  output  in 
kilowatt  hours  and  the  corresponding  cost  of  fuel  and  labor  in 
the  case  of  steam  plants,  has  been  found  very  convenient  and  use- 
ful in  the  evolution  of  this  engine.  The  speed  regulation  under 
the  electric  tuning  fork  test  is  shown  to  be  within  one-third  of 
one  per  cent  under  constant  load.  The  Secor  engine  is  therefore 
especially  applicable  for  direct  coupling  to  a  dynamo  for  electric 
lighting  or  power  service.  Among  the  important  advantages  of 
the  direct  connected  plants  are  the  following: 

1.  The  mechanism  of  these  oil  electric  generating  sets  com- 
pares favorably  in  every  detail  with  the  best  steam  equipment. 
The  single  cylinder  plants  like  steam  plants  are  solid  coupled,  or 
else  have  continuous  shafts  from  engine  to  dynamo. 

2.  These  oil  electric  generators  automatically  produce  electric 
light  for  isolated  service  from  commercial  kerosene  oil  at  much 
less  cost  than  is  commonly  charged  by  central  stations  for  electric 
or  gas  light. 

3.  The  Secor  Solid  Coupled  Plants  are  self-regulating;  no  re- 
adjustment of  rheostat  being  required  when  lights  are  turned  on 
or  off,  the  steadiness  of  E.  M.  F.  is  equal  to  the  best  steam  engine 
performance. 


fL 

VARIOUS   TYPES    OF  ENGINES  AND    MOTORS.  391 

4.  The  oil  electric  plants  are  now  practicable  for  either  direct 
or  alternating  current,  operating  as  units,  or  in  multiple. 

5.  They  are  as  easily  installed  and  cared  for  in  the  smaller 
sizes  as  an  ordinary  house  furnace. 

6.  They  are  more  easily  and  quickly  started  and  operated 
than  any  steam  plant. 

7.  They  are  entirely  reliable  as  generators  of  electricity  for 
light  and  power. 

8.  They  are  simple,  safe  and  remarkably  compact. 

The  limited  space  required  is  a  great  advantage  in  crowded 
districts  in  cities,  while  the  possibility  of  obtaining  power  or  elec- 
tric light  from  kerosene  in  the  country,  will  open  up  an  ever- 
widening  sphere  of  usefulness.  The  cost  of  labor  in  a  central 
station,  and  the  unavoidable  steam  wastes  as  well  as  electric  trans- 
mission loss,  are  all  avoided  by  the  new  direct  isolated  system; 
the  electric  light  is  therefore  no  longer  a  luxury  to  be  enjoyed 
only  in  homes  of  wealth  located  within  the  lighting  area  of  a 
central  station.  The  Secor  Oil  Electric  Isolated  System  Surpasses 
Ordinary  Central  Station  Service  in  Quality  and  Cost  of  Light, 
as  well  as  in  Greater  Availability. 

The  Junior  Oil  Electric  Plants  consist  of  the  Junior  engines 
solidly  coupled  to  multipolar  electric  generators,  with  complete 
switch  boards  and  all  instruments,  and  are  made  in  several  sizes 
from  25  lights  upward.  They  carry  sufficient  oil  in  their  own 
bases  for  an  automatic  supply  of  fuel  for  more  than  a  night's  run. 
In  addition  to  electric  lighting  the  smaller  plants  are  available 
for  light  farm  work,  such  as  pumping  water,  ensilage  cutting, 
churning,  etc.,  and  for  such  household  uses  beside  electric  lighting 
as  charging  storage  batteries  for  electric  carriages  or  launches, 
operating  electric  fans,  etc.  The  Junior  sets  are  therefore  adapted 
to  universal  use  in  every  possible  situation,  being  easily  installed 
and  operated  by  local  unskilled  labor. 

The  General  Power  Company,  No.  81  and  83  Fulton  Street, 
New  York  City,  are  the  sole  manufacturers  of  the  Secor  engine 
in  America. 


PATENTS 

Issued  in  the  United  States  for  Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Engines  and  their  appli- 
ances, from  1875  to  July  I,  1902,  inclusive. 


—  1875  — 
G.W.Daimler  .................  168,623 

J.  Taggart  .....................  161,454 

P.  Vera  ..................  ......  160,130 

—  1876— 

J.  Brady  .......................  176,588 

A.  de  Bischop  ..................  178,121 

T.  W.  Gilles  ...................  179,782 

-1877- 
J.  Wortheim  ...................  192,206 

R.  D.  Bradley  ..................  187,092 

F.  Deickman  ...................  195,585 

N.  A.  Otto  .....................  194,047 

Otto  &  Crossley  ................  10,473 

—  1878  — 

J.  Brady  .......................  200,970 

-1879- 


F.  Burger 

J.  H.  Connelly  ..................  211,836 

J.  Robson  ......................  220,174 

Wittig&Hees  .................  213,539 

G.  W.  Daimler  .................  222,467 

-1880- 
E.  Buss  ........................  226,972 

L.  Durand  .....................  232,808 

C.  Linford  ......................  232,987 

A.  K.  Rider  ....................  233,804 

Wittig&Hees  ................  225,778 

D.  Clerk  .......................  230,470 

G.  W.  Daimler  .................  232,243 

—  1881  — 

E.  Renier  ......................  247,741 

C.  J.  B.  Gatune  .................  240,994 

A.  K.  Rider  ....................  245,218 

J.  Robson  ......................  243,795 

G.  Wacker  ............  .  ........  242,401 


N.  A.  Otto  .....................  241,707 

J.  Ravel  ........................  236,258 


C.  G.  Beechy  ...................  264,126 

R.  Hutchinson  .................  253,709 

A.  P.  Massey  ..................  260,587 

T.  McAdoo  ....................  253,406 

P.  Munsinger  ..................  266,304 

L.  C.  Parker  ...................  269,813. 

C.  M.  Sombart  ..................  260,620 

K.  Teichman  ...................  269,163 

<  259,736 
(  269,146 
A.  K.  Rider  ....................  267,458 

E.  W.  Kellogg  ..................  265,423 

H.  H.  Burritt  ..................  258,884 

W.  H.  Wigmore  ................  260,5  13 


H.  Wiedling 


-1883- 


C.  W.  Baldwin. 


J.  Charter. 


H.  Denney 

Eteve  &  Lallemont. . . 

J.  A.  Ewins 

E.  J.  Frost 

W.  Hammerschmidt. 


Geo.  M.  Hopkins. , 


G.  M.  &  L.  N.  Hopkins. 
Jackson  &  Kirkpatrick... 
S.  Marcus 

H.  S.  Maxim.., 


276,747 

276,748 

276,749, 

276,750. 

276,751 

287,897 

288,399. 

290,310 

270,202 

270,203 

290,632 

272,130- 

278,421 

273,269. 

288,632 

284,555 

284,556 

284,557 

284,851 

283,398- 

286,030- 

273,750 

279,657- 


PATENTS. 


393 


L.  N.  Nash, 


271,902 

278,255 
278,256 
289,019 
289,691 


N.  A.  Otto 

L.  C.  Parker  (reissue) 


G.  ±1.  Reynolds. 


288,479 

10,290 

284,061 


J.  Robson 

C.  Rohn 

C.  Shelburne.. 
T.  W.  Turner. 
L.  C.  Parker.. 


280,083 


J.  Schweizer 292,864 

N.  H.  Thompson  &  C.  B.  Swan.  300,661 

—  1885  — 

S.  Wilcox 332,312 

C.  H.  Andrews 314,284 

C.  W.  Baldwin J  325,378 

325,379 
325,380 

C.  Benz 316,868 

M.  G.  Crane 327,866 

G.Daimler...  .1313,922 

l  313,923 

W.  A.  Graham 330,  317 

H.  Hartig 324,554 

G.  M.  &  I.  N.  Hopkins. ...       .  J  326,561 

I  326,562 
T.  McDonough 315,808 


G.  M.  Allen  

301,320 

.i^iWf 
312,496- 
312,497 
312,498 

322,477 
328,970 
333,336 
322,650 

332,447 
317,892 

332,313 
332,314 
332,315 
328,170- 

324,244 
312,906 

3I2,499 

331,079- 
331,080 
331,210 
320,285. 
315,082- 
311,214 

341,538 
337,226' 
336,505 
335,564 
347,469 
10,750 
333,839 

J  Charter            

292,894 
-io2'478       J-  F-  Place  -1 

E  Edwards 

Geo.  M.  Hopkins..  

306,254       D   s  Regan 

G  M  &  I  N  Hopkins 

305,452 
-106024       c-  Shelburne  

C.  W.  King  &  A.  W.  Cliff  

293,179       D   S   Troy 

S  Lawson.                        

306,933 
307,057       g  Wiicox  J 

H.  S.  Maxim  , 

295,784                                                               | 
296,340       j  g  Wood 

J.  A.  Menck—  A.  Hambrock  
P  Murray  Jr..             ... 

295,  4T5       ^  •^  Schleicher  

305,464       H  p  Feigter  

305,465       E.  Schrabetz.  .  .  .   ,,  

B.  Parker  

305,466 
305,467 
308,572      L  N  Nash 

F.  W.  Rachholds  

301,009 
302,045 

306,443          n     ~     -P^o-an 

T.  Spiel. 

W.  L.  Tobey  

S.  L.  Wiegand  

297,329         o     ointz 

J.  S.  Wood  

300,204           p      ,.     W_rj 

A.  K.  Rider  

292,178 

296,341       C.  H.  Andrews—  H.  Williams.  . 
291  065       G.  C.  Anthony.            ....         .  . 

C.  G.  Beechey  

H.S.Maxim  • 

T.  Spiel  . 

293,  185       J.  H.  Clark  

291  102       G.  Daimler  (reissue)            .  .  .  .  . 

C.H.Andrews  , 

^01,078       E.  Delamare  —  Deboutteville.... 

394 


PATENTS. 


J.  Hodgkinson—  J.  H.  Dewhurst  347,603 

R.  Van  Kalkreuth  

358,134 

E.  J.  J.  Lenoir  

...  345,596 

J.S.Wood  

363,497 

...  335,462 

N.  C.  Bassett  

359,552 

|  35i,393 

T.Shaw  

367,936 

P.  Murray,  Jr  

..•j  351,394 

W.  Gavillet—  L.  Martaresche.  .  . 

357,193 

'  35^395 

E.  Korting  

366,116 

t  334,039 

F.  Von  Martini  

358,796 

L.  H.  Nash  

..^341,934 

T.  Backeljan  

364,205 

'  341,935 

H.  P.  Holt—  F.  W.  Crossley.  .  .  . 

370,258 

N.  E.  Nash  

..  340,435 

N.  A.  Otto  

365,701 

J  F   Place                  

(348,998 

F.  W.  Crossley—  H.  P.  Holt—  F. 

1348,999 

H.  Anderson  

363,508 

N.  B.  Randall  

...  355,101 

B.F.  Kadel  

374,968 

A.  L.  Riker  

...  349,858 

-C.  Sintz  

...  339,225 

—  1888  — 

H.  &  C.  E.  Skinner  

...  335,971 

R.  F.  Smith  

i  345,998 
1  347,656 

H.  T.  Dawson  . 

E.  Delamare  —  Ueboutteville, 

392,191 

J.  Spiel  

.  .  .  349,464 

10,951 

-S.  Wilcox  

(  343,744 
t  343-745 

H.  Hartig  
L.  N.  Hopkins  

39^528 
379,397 

L.  H.  Nash  

I  334,038 
I  334,040 

E.  Korting  

1 

377,623 
386,208 

E.  Korting  

...  346,374 

L.H.  Nash  -< 

386,210 

J.  H.  Clark  

...  353,402 

386,211 

C.  E.  Skinner  

j  352,368 
1  335,970 

J.  Noble  
H.  K.  Shanck  -j 

379,807 
376,212 

F.Bain  

...  354,881 

1 

390,710 

-C.  W.  Baldwin  

...  352,796 

W.  S.  Sharpneck  

391,486 

N.  A.  Otto  

...  350,077 

C.  Sintz  

383,775 

H.  Robinson  

...  346,687 

H.  Skinner  

389,608 

N.  A.  Otto  

...  335,038 

R.  F.  Smith  

377,962 

J.  P.  Holland  

(  337,ooo 
<  335,629 

G.  W.  Stewart  
J.  Bradley  

381,488 
386,233 

A.  K.  Rider  

...  349,983 

J.R.Daly  

392,109 

O.  Daimler  

.  .  .  334,  109 

386,214 

J.  Spiel  

...  349,369 

386,216 

O.  Ragot  &  G.  Smyers  

...  350,769 

L.  H.  Nash  • 

386,212 

L.  i     Nash  

.  .  .  334,041 

386,213 

386,215 

—  1887  — 

286,209 

J.  Atkinson  

...  367,496 

R.  Bocklen  
N.  A.  Otto  

384,673 
388,37? 

•C.  W.  Baiawm  

l  368,444 

H.  Williams  

386,949 

H.  Campbell  

(  368,445 
...  367,184 

N.  A.  Otto  

386,929 
101  118 

J.  Charter.  .  ,  

(  356,447 

A.  Rollason  

1  394,299 

L.  T.  Cornell  

1  370,242 
...  359,920 

C.  L.  Seabury  

393,o8o 

F.  W.  Crossley  
C.  J.  B.  Gaume  

...  370,322 
...  374,056 

—  1889  — 

tf.  W.  Ofeldt  

...  356,419 

A.  Schmid—  J.  C.  Beckfield  

403,294 

A  Schmid—  J.  C.  Beckfield.  . 
Reissue  

j  362,187 

'  '  I  371,793 
•  •  {    10,878 

J.  J.  R.  Humes  
C.  W.  Baldwin  

400,850 
|  407,320 
1  407,321 

PATENTS. 


395 


C.  W.  Baldwin 408,623 

T.  B.  Barker 400,163 

J.  C.  Beckfield 396,022 

X.  T.  Cornell    406,263 

W.  E.  Crist 417,471 

H.  J.  Hartig 415,197 

A.  Histon 40x3,458 

f  399,907 
399,908 

"S.  Lawson •>'  402,749 

402,750 

1 402, 75 1 

J.  Mathies 411,668 

L.H.Nash 4401,453 

I  4i8,4i7 

D.  S.  Regan 408,356 

N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry 403,379 

A.  Schmid 396,238 

C.  Sintz 416,649 

H.  Tenting 402,363 

W.  von  Oechelhaenser 417,759 

•C.  White— A.  R.  Middleton. ...  406,807 

L.  F.  McNett 407,961 

N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry 403,378 

W.  E.  Crist 417*472 

L.  H.  Nash 418,419 

E.  D.  Deboutteville— L.  P.  C.  ^  400,754 
Malandin (  411,644 

£.  Capitaine 408,460 

E.  Korting 417,924 

N.  Rogers-J.  A.  Wharry \  403,377 

1  403,376 

L.  H.  Nash 401,452 

L.  C.  &  B.  Parker 401,204 

E.  Capitaine 4°8,459 

I.  P.  Allman 411,211 

N.  Rogers— J.  A.  Wharry 403,380 

J.  C.  Beckfield 417,624 

S.  Griffin 412,883 

H.  Hoelljies 408,483 

L.  H.  Nash 418,418 

E.  Capitaine 406,160 

C.  S.  A.  H.  Wiedling 398,108 

J.  J.  Purnell 408,137 

S.  Wilcox 402,549 

L.  C.  &  B.  Parker (403,367 

I  405,795 

W.  J.  Crossley 406,706 

G.  Daimler 418,112 

J.  Charter 4*5,446 

N.  A.  Otto 407,234 

M.  V.  Schiltz 399,569 

A.  Allmann— F.  Kuppermann . .  412.228 
JC.  Gramm 415,908 


N.  A.  Otto. 


M.  M.  Barrett— J.  F.  Daly. 


—  1890— 

G.  B.  Brayton 432,260 

W.  D.  &  S.  Priestman 430,038 

E.Butler...  .(423,214 

(  437,973 
H.  Lindley  &  T.  Browett 440,485 

N.  A.  Otto...,  .J  433,8o6 

(  433,807 

H.  Campbell 428,801 

G.  McGee 432,638 

J.Taylor 443,082 

'433,809 
433,8io 
433,8n 
433,8i2 
433,813 
433,8i4 
437,5o8 
.  424,345 
j  434,695 
1  430,504 

F.  Dtirr.    442,248 

H.  J.  Baker 421,473 

C.  W.  Baldwin 434,171 

M.  M.  Barrett— J.  F.  Daly \  430,505 

(  430,506 

J.  C.  Beckfield 432,720 

i  421,474 

J.  C.  Beckfield— A.  Schmid. . . .  -j  421,475 

'  421,477 

E.  H.  Gaze 437,776 

J.  Mobs 426  297 

E.  Quack 441,582 

D.  S.  Regan  (reissue) 11,068 

A.  Schmid— J.  C.  Beckfield 421,524 

H.  K.  Shank 439,200 

W.  S.  Sharpneck 441,028 

C.  Sintz 426,337 

J.  D.  Smith 418,821 

E.A.  Sperry 433,55* 

J.  R.  Valentine— A.  T.  Grigg..  425,116 

C.W.Weiss (419,805 

\  419,806 

C.  White— A.  R.  Middleton....  438,209 
J.  J.  Pearson— J.  Kunze 428,858 

G.  H.  Chappell (Rotary)  441,865 

J.  H.  Eichler. (Rotary)  442,963 

G.  E.  Hibbard (Rotary)  424,000 

W.  S.  Sharpneck (Rotary)  428,762 

W.  C.  Rossney 420, 169 

E.  F.  Roberts 424,027 

C.W.Baldwin 439,232 

J.  J.  Pearson 426,736 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth 436,936 


396 


PATENTS. 


J.  W.  Eisenhuth  

(  430,310 

-1892  — 

(  430,312 

G.  B.  Brayton  

...  432,114 

J.  Joyce  

.  480,019. 

A.    W.    Schleicher  —  P.   A. 

N. 

B.  Stein  

478,651 

Winand  

...  434,609 

D.  Best  

.  484,727 

P.  A.  N.  Winand—  L.  V.  Go 

eb- 

J.  Charter  

.  472,106 

bels  

...  435,637 

J.  A.  Charter  

i  473,293 

J.  Roots  

.  ..  425,909 

(  477,295 

H.  A.  Stuart  

.  ..  439,702 

H.  T.  Dawson  

.  466,331 

N.  A.  Otto...  

•  ••  437,507 

E.  W.  Evans  

.  488,165 

C.  von  Ltide  

•  ..  435,439 

J.  W.  Raymond  

.  488,483 

H.  Warden  

.  486,143 

—  1801  — 

J.  Wehrschmidt  

.  484,168 

C.  W.  Weiss  

.  473,685 

A.  Harding  

...  452,520 

S.  Withers—  D.  S.  Covert  

.  487,313 

I.  F.  Allman  

...  453,071 

H.  Schumm  

.  488,093 

J.  Charter  

...  455,388 

E.  I.  Nichols  

.  480,272 

B.H.  Coffee  

...  446,851 

H.  Schumm  

.  482,202 

P.  T.  Coffield—  C.  H.  Poxson 
E.  W.  Evans  
J.  Fielding  

...  456,284 
...  452.568 
...  450,406 

A.  Niemezyk  
G.  W.  Weatherhogg  

.  480,737 
•  480,535 

M.  A.  Graham  

.  ..  445,110 

O.  Kosztovits  
G.  W.  Lewis  

...  448,924 
.  .  .  451,621 

—  1893  — 

E.  Narjot  

...  448989 

F.  E.  Tremper  

<  495,28i 

B.  C.  Vanduzen  

...  448,597 

1  503,016 

G.  J.  Weber  

(  449.507 
I  444,031 

J.  S.  Bigger  
F.  Cordenons  

.  49^403 
•  500,754 

M.  M.  Barrett  

...   452,174 

J.  Foos—  C.  F.  Endter  

•  494,134 

M.  M.  Barrett—  J.  F.  Daly... 

...  463,435 

C.  J.  B.  Gaume  

.  501,881 

D.  D.  &  J.  T.  Hobbs  

.  .  .  460,070 

W.  W.  Grant  •  

.  497,239- 

{459,403 

C.  F.  Hirsch—  A.  Schilling.  .  .  . 

.  507,436 

F.  W.  Lanchester  

459,404 

D.  D.  Hobbs  

.  506,817 

459,405 

G.  E.  Hoyt  

(  502,255 

465,480 

/  510,140 

L.  G.  Wolley  

...  450,091 

S.  Lawson  

.  498,476 

J.  S.  Connelly  

1  457,459 
\  457,460 

G.  W.  Lewis  

W.     von    Oechelhaeuser  —  H 

.  5u,535 

v.  Loutsky  

...  460,241 

Junkers  

.  508,833. 

P.  Neil  —  A.  Janiot  

.  ..  462,447 

f  499,935 

H.  Williams  

...  457,020 

C.  W.  Pinkney  

1  504,614 

B.  C.  Vanduzen  

...  448,386 

1  505,327 

P.  C.  Sainsevain  

.  ..  461,802 

I5ii,i58; 

G.  Roberts  

J.  W.  Raymond  

.  491,855 

F.  S.  Durand  , 

...  455,483 

C.  Sintz  

.  509,255 

H.  Schumm  

...  458,073 

C.  V.  Walls  

•  498,700 

H.  Lindley  

...  450,771 

H.  A.  Weeks—  G.  W.  Le,wis.  .  . 

.  5",478 

E.  Kaselowsky  

...  463,231 

W.  H.  Worth  

.  504,260 

G.  W.  Lewis  

..  451  620 

H.  W.  Tuttle  

.  510,213 

(  456,505 

D.  Best  

.  496,718 

A.  Rollason—  J.  H.  Hamilton 

...  |456,853 

C.  W.  Weiss  

.  492,126: 

457,332 

A.  Niemezyk  

.  508,042 

O.  Lindner  , 

...  453,446 

C.  B.  Wattles  

.  509,981 

L.Kessler  

,..  451,824 

E.  Delamare—  Deboutteville  - 

D.  S.  Regan  

,..  448,369 

•  5«,593- 

PATENTS. 


397 


H.  Schumm I  497, 689 

(  510,712 

C.  Stein 511,661 

P.  H.  Irgens 505,767 

H.  Williams 490,006 

8.  Chatterton 505,751 

A.  Gray 504,723 

W.  Seek 509,830 

—  1894  — 

J.  Low— J.  W.  Gow 5*5,297 

P.  A.  N.  Winand 525,828 

A.  J.  Painter 523,369 

W.  S.  Elliott,  Jr 523,628 

H.  F.  Frazer 526,348 

J.B.  Carse...       \  Si8,i77 

\  518, 178 

B.  H.  Coffey 514,211 

H.T.  Dawson J  5*3,486 

I  530,508 

W.  W.  Grant 525,651 

J.  W.  Hartley— J.  Kerr 515,770 

C.  F.  Hirsch 526,837 

F.Hirsch ^22,712 

<  530,523 

•C.  S.  Hisey 5i4,7I3 

J.  Labataille— J.  J.  Graff 517,821 

D.  C.  Luce 519,863 

J.  McGeorge 525,857 

F.  S.  Mead 528,006 

H.  B.  Migliavacca 528,105 

E.  Narjot 515,530 

F.  C.  Olin 525,358 

J.  &  W.  Paterson 528,489 

T.  H.  &  J.  T.  H.  Paul. 530,237 

H.  Pokony 514,271 

'S.  D.  Shepperd 521,443 

H.  Swain 519,880 

R.  Thayer 5*7,077 

H.  Voll 527,635 

J.  Walrath 522,811 

F.  Hirsch 518,717 

W.  W.  Grant 5*4,359 

K.  A.  Jacobson 514,996 

M.  Lorois 529,452 

W.  A.  Shaw 523,734 

W.  F.  West 513,289 

W.  Seek 517,890 

H.  M.  L.  Crouan 5*5,1*6 

H.  H.  Andrew— A.  R.  Bellamy  5  526,369 

1  528,063 

H.  Schumm 528,115 

H.  Campbell 523,511 


L.  Crebessac 530,161 

R.  B.  Hain 531,183 

—  1895  — 

G.  W.  Waltenbough 543, 116 

H.  Schumm 548,142 

F.  M.  Underwood 542,743 

F.  S.  Mead 546,238 

H.  Thau 545,553 

A.  J.  Signer 538,132 

C.  L.  Ives 534,886 

M.  L.  Mery 543,*57 

C.W.Weiss...  .$543,163 


J.  J.  Norman 

J.  J.  Bordman 

J.  Bryan 

E.  E.  Butler 

J.  A.  Charter 

F.  W.  C.  Cock 

F.  W.  Coen 

G.  F.  Conner . 

F.  E.  Covey— G.  W.  Haines 

W.  L.  Crouch— E.  E.  Pierce.... 

J-Day J 


548,922 
547,4H 
542,972 
546,110 


H.  J.  Dykes 

J.  Froelich 

E.  R.  Gill 

H.  H.  Hennegin. 

F.  Hirsch 

A.  R.  Holmes. . . 
L.  M.  Johnston  . 

J.  W.  Lambert. . 


544,2io 

55i,579 
548,628 
532,869 
535,8i5 
543,6i4 
544,214 
539,  *  22 
550266 
536,029 
545,502 
532,555 
540,490 
538,680 

550,832 

550,451 

m  e  f 541,773 
' '  1  545,709 

532,980 

C.M.Rhodes...  (531,861 

I  540,923 

F.  A.  Rider — S.  Vivian 533,922 

B.  L.  Rinehart — B.  M.  Turner..  552,332 

C.  Sintz 539,7*0 

E.  J.  Stoddard 533,754 

H.  Swain  535,964 

G.  Van  Zandt 537,253 

C.  V.  Walls 537,370 

G.  J.  Weber 534,354 

H.  A.  Weeks 543,8*8 

C.  J.  Weinman— E.  E.  Euchen- 

hofer 537,5*3 


I 

H.  A.  Lauson — J.  J.  Norman — 
A.  D.  Nott 

F.  S.  Mead...  ..} 


F.  P.  Miller. 


398 


PATENTS. 


C.  White—  A.  R.  Middleton.  .  .  . 

545,995       C.  Wagerell-A.  A.  Williams.  . 

555,355 

D.  Best  

544,879       w.W.  Grant..                          .    J 

553,460 

F.  Burger  

549,626                                                             1 

553,488 

J.  R.  Bridges  

548,772       S.  M.  Miller  

553,352- 

J.  W.  Lambert  

536,287       F.  M.  Underwood  

553,i8i 

G.  W.  Roth  

552,263       W.  D.  &  S.  Priestman  

552,718- 

W.  R.  Campbell  

550,742       J.  S.  F.  &  E.  Carter  

552,686 

B.  W.  Grist  

545,125       L.  J.  Monahan  —  J.  D.  Termant. 

561,123. 

J.  Robison  

532,098       P.  A.  N.  Winand  

561,302 

P.  Burt—  G.  McGhee  

550,674       H.  L.  Parker  

560,920 

G.  W.  Roth  

539.923       J.  W.  Eisenhuth  

558,369 

F.  S.  Mead  

544,586       G.  Alderson  

560,016 

J.    E.  Weyman  —  A.  J.  &  J.  A. 

A.  F.  Rober  

560,149. 

Drake  

542,124       L.  H.  Nash  

563,051 

P.  Bilbault  

532,412       T.  M.  Spaulding  

562,673 

A.  R.  Bellamy  j 

536,997       L.S.Gardner...                       ..J 
537,963                                                               f 

562,720 
558,943 

O.  Colborne  

550,675       E.  Kasalowsky  

559,290 

J.  Robison  

532,099       I.  F.  Allman  

556,237 

C.  &  A.  Spiel  

532,219       H.  C.  Baker  

563,249 

J.  E.  Friend  

550,785       F.  S.  Mead  

563,670 

S.  Griffin  

542,410       A.  W.  Bodell  

563,543 

W.  Seek  ,  

549,939       P.  A.  N.  Winand  

563,535 

H.  F.  Wallmann  

548,824       L.  F.  Allman  

563,541 

W.  E.  Gibbon  

547,606       L.  M.  Burgeois,  Jr  

564,182 

j 

535,914       A.  J.  Pierce  

564,643 

V.  List—  J.  Kossakoff  \ 

536,090       E   N   Dickerson  f 

564,684 

( 

550,185                                                               I 

565,157 

A.  W.  Brown  

532,865       H.  Swain  

564,769 

F.  Mayer  

549,677       J.  Robison  

565,033 

F.  W.  Ofeldt  ] 

538,694       R.  E.  Olds—  M.  F.  Bates  

565,786 

540,757       B.  Wolf  

566,263 

535,837       A.  Barker  

566,125 

J  Robison     •] 

532,097       H.  Ebbs  

566,300 

532,100       G.  H.  Willets  

567,530 

—  1896  

H.  A.  Winter,  

567,432 

H.  Van  Hoevenburgh  

567,928 

J.  F.  Duryea  

557,469       C.  D.  Anderson  

567,954 

J.  F.  Daly  &  W.  L.  Corson  

557,493       J-  S.  Klein  

568,115 

G.E.  Hoyt  

561,890       J.  S.  —  R.  D.  —  W.  D.  &C.  H. 

A.  A.  Hamerschlage  

561  ,886          Cundall  

568,017 

G.  F.  Eggerdinger  and  G.  R. 

G.  A.  Thode  

568,814 

Swaine  

56l,774              p       £      QJjn 

569,386 

G.  W.  Lamos  .,  

562,307                                                                                                                                   ] 

569,564 

FredMex  

562,230       H.  A.  Winter  

569,530 

H.  G.  Carnell  J 

533,662       C.  J.  Weinman—  E.  E.  Euchen- 

( 

556,086          hofer  *  

569,365 

F.  W.  Mellars  

556,195       H.  Schumm  

569,942 

C.  J.  Weinman—  E.E.  Euchen-  j 

555,717       H.  C.  Hart  

569,918 

hoffer  ( 

555,791       M.  W.  Weir  

569,694 

F.  W.  Crossley  &  J.  Atkinson  .  . 

555,898       T.  von  Querfurth  

569,672 

M.  G.  Nixon  

559,399       R.  E.  Olds  

570,263. 

J.M.  Worth  
G.  L.  Thomas  

559,oi  7       E.  j.  Pennington.  .  .  ,      ,  / 

558,749                                                            l 

570,440 
570,441 

PATENTS. 


399 


R.  Rolf  son 570,649 

L.  Gathman 570,470 

E.  Prouty 570,500 

C.  W.  Pinkney 571,239 

C.  A.  Kunzel,  Jr 571,447 

G.  W.  Lewis 57*, 534 

F.  C.  Olln 571,495 

E.  Rappe 571,498 

M.  Biakey 571,966 

J   F.  Uu.yea 572,051 


E.  E.  Ludi 572,209. 

E.  Capitaine 572,498 

F.J.  Rettig 573,296 

F.  E.  Culver 573,209 

S.  M.  Balzer 573,J74 

J.  Charter,  Jr 573,762 

G.  S.  Tiffany 573,628 

M.  F.  Underwood 574,183. 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth 574,311 


—1897— 


F.  Burger 

F.  C.  Southwell. 


J.  Walrath. 


L.  Benier 

H.  S.  Bristol., 
T.  W.  Cohen 
P.  T.  Coffield. 
O.  Colborne. . 

W.  L.  Crouch , 


C.  L.  Grohmann 

G.  Joranson 

J.  Ledent 

L.  H.  Nash.  . 


L.H.Watties 

G.  W.  Lamas 

J.  D.  Blagden.    Rotary.  . . 

E.  W.  Blum 

W.  Donaldson 

E.  Fessard 

W.  F.  Trotter. . 


W.  Rowbotham, 


A.  Peugeot 

G.  W.  Lewis 

O.  Bamborn 

E.  Merry 

W.  Maybacho 

M.  Biakey... 

J.  G.  Lewis 

G.  H.  Ellis  and  J.  F.  Steward 

H.  C.  Baker 

D.  Best 

F.  G.  and  F.  H.  Bates. . 


576,430 

575,8i2 

577,898 
578,377 
579,378 
575,326 
575,878 
579,789 
579,860 
574,670 
575  502 
574,535 
574,6io 
575,720 
576,604 
578,H2 
577,567 
574,6i4 
575,517 
579,554 
577,160 

574,723 
575,66i 
574,762 
578,266 
577,536 
577,i89 

578,034 
579,068 
577,i67 
580,172 
580,090 
580,387 
580,444 
580,446 
58o,445 


W.  O.  Worth  ..............  581,685, 

E.  P.  Wollard  ..............  581,385 

A.  Winton  .................  582,108 

T.  Small  .................  /  581,783. 

(581,784 

F.  S.  Mead  ................  582,073 

G.  Alderson  ...............  581,930 

W.  H.  Knight...  ...........  581,826 

O.  Mueller  ................  582,540 

J.  W.  Lambert  .............  582,532 

H.  T.  Dawson  ..............  582,271 

F.  M.  Rites..  j  582,231 

1582,232 
J.  A.  Charter  ...............  582,620 

G.  W.  Lewis  ...............  583,399 

G.   Westinghouse    and    E.  ^83  '584 

Rund  ..................  (583)585 

G.  Langen  .................  583,600- 

H.  B.  Maxwell  .............  583,495 

L.  H.  Nash 


(  583,628- 

J.  W.  Raymond..  ..  ^83,507 

<  583,508 
J.H.  Tuffs  .................  583,872 

F.  Burger  and  H.  M.Williams  584,282 
F.  C.  Griswold  ............  584,  130 

P.  B.  &  S.  D.  McLelland  .  .  .  584,  i8& 
W.  F.  Davis  ...............  583,082 

P.  A.  N.  Winand  ____  .  ......  583,962- 

J.  O.  Brown  ...........  .  ----  584,622 

E.  B.  Dake  ................  584,674. 

C.   C.   Wright  and  W.  J.  (_   ^^ 
Stephens  ...............  ) 

C.  Quast  .........  .  .......  }5^' 

(584,960 


400 


PATENTS. 


C.  A.  Miller  

585,115       F.  Conley  and  C.  J.  Macomber 

59i,34i 

G.  W.  Starr  and  J.  H.Cogswell 

585,127       M.  O.  Godding  

59^598 

W.  E.  Gibbon  

585,434       D.  Best.     Reissue  

11,633 

L.  S.  Brown  

585,504       C.    I.   Cummings   and   J.   C.  ) 

CQT  QC2 

H.  B.  Steel  

585,601           Hilton  ) 

3V*»y>* 

F.  Burger  

585^51       c.W.Weiss..                     .    \ 

592,033 

J.  A.  Charter  

585,652                                                         I 

59->°34 

C.  Jacobson  

586,3  1  2       P.  Auriol  

592,073 

J.  D.  Russ  

586,321       C.  L.  Mayhew  

591,862 

E.  P.  Woillard  

586,409      C.  Sintz  

592,669 

E.  J.  Pennington  

586,511       F.  C.  Olin  

592,881 

T.  A.  Redmon  

586,826      F.  W.  Spacke  

593,°34 

A.  A.  Williams  

587,627       F.  W.  Lancaster  

562,794 

P.  Mueller  

587,747       J.  J.  Heilmann  

593,296 

H.  C.  Hart  j 

588,061       C.  A.  Schwarm  

593'97Q 

588,062       F.  F.  Snow  

593-9" 

A.  G.  Pace  

588,466      A.  Rosenberg  

593,859 

S.  A.  Reeve  

588,292       W.  Bayley  

594,372 

C.  Quast  

588,876       J.  Q.  Chase  

595,043 

L.  Ely  

588,629       McFadden  and  Lloyd  

595,324 

White  &  Middleton  

588,91  7       A.  L.  Harbison  

595,625 

J.  C.  Wilson  

589,150       E.  Meredith  ,  

595,489 

E.  R.  Moffitt  

589,509       W.  Rowbotham  

595,497 

J.  S.  Walch  

590,080       J.  B.  Fenner  

596,239 

A.  J.  Tackle  

590,796       E.  R.  Bales  

596,352 

V.  G.  Apple  

591,123       F.  W.  Lancaster  

596,271 

-1898— 

W.  J.  Wright....,  

607,904       C.  A.  Lefebvre  

614,1  14 

W.  E.  White  

599,376       A.  A.  Vansickle  

615,766 

J.  Madlehner  and  F.  Hamilton 

616,059       P.  E.  Singer    

600,971 

W.  von  Oechelhaeuser  

596,613       A.  Howard  

602,161 

W.  O.  Worth  

607,613       G.  A.  Marconrtett  

611,813 

J.  S.  Klein  j 

613,284       E  Wieseman  and  J.  Holroyd  I 
6i5,393 

\  600,107 
I  600,974 

T.  M.  Doyle  

602,556      S.  Rolfe  

597,860 

F.  S.  Mead   j 

603,914       S.  Bouton  

606,504 

612,258       L.  Halvorson  

600,147 

H.  A.  Humphrey  

61  1,125       C.  E.  Henriod  

603,986 

W.  Morava  

608,968       P.  L.  Hider  

599,235 

W.  R.  Bullis  

597>389       G.  A.  Newman  

602,707 

R.  Diesel  

608,845       J.  A.  Secor  

602,477 

F.  L.  Merritt  

605.583       E.  D.  Strong  

597,921 

M.  H.  Rumpf  

615,049 

(598,832 

G.  L.  Woodworth  

607,317       A.  Winton  

j  600,819 

G.  H.  Gere  

598,986 

v  610,465 

R.  B.  Hain  

599,653       M.  F.  Bates  

607,536 

W.  F.  Trotter  

603,297       M.  Beck  

602,820 

PATENTS. 


401 


X,.  F.  Burger  

598,496       L.  H.  Millen  

...  612,047 

H.  G.  Carnell  =  

6i3,757       J.  J.  Ohrt  

.  .  .  608,298 

J.  Carnes  and  C.  W.  McKibben 

603,125       F.  C.  Olin  

...  613,390 

F.  E.  Culver  

601,012       J.  A.  Ostenberg  

...  612,756 

A.  H.  Dingman  

610,034 

(  597,326 

J.  F.  Duryea  

605,81  5       C.  Quast  

.  .  j  607,878 

J.  Fraser  

599,496 

'  607,879 

C.  Guyer  

596,809       J.  Reid  

.  .     607,276 

H.  H.  Hennegin  

597,771       S.  S.  Simrak  

...   598,025 

T.  H.  Hicks  

606,386       H.  C.  Strang  

.  .  .  615,052 

D.  D.  Hobbs  

613,417       D.  M.  Tuttle  

...  604,241 

C.  Jacobson  

607,566       B.  C.  Vanduzen  

...  600,754 

J.  N.  Kelly  and  W.  M.  Kelch  . 

610,682       W.  E.  White  

•••   599»375 

J.  Lizotte  

600,675       L.  J.  Wing  

.  .  .  607,580 

S.  E.  Maxwell  

601,210       W.  J.  Wright  

...  607,903 

-1899— 

A.  G.  Pace.     (Reissue)  

11,775       J.H.Hamilton  

...  621,525 

R.  Mewes  

633,878       J.  B.  Doolittle  

.  .  .  637,450 

F.  R.  Simms  

617,660      C.  O.  White  

.  .  .  634,679 

F.  R.  Simms.     (Reissue)  .  .  . 

1  1  ,763       J.  A.  Harp  

...  628,316 

E.  Fessard  

639,160       E.  H.  Korsmeyer  

.  .  .  636,048 

F.  Burger  

623,980       E.  L.  Lowe  

...  624,355 

E.  Brillie  

618,638       J.  W.  Eisenhuth  

...  620,554 

W.  Jasper  

626,206       E  j  WoQlf 

(  627,219 

E.  J.  Fithian  

626,155 

(  627,220 

G.  Hirt  and  G.  Horn  

630,083       c   R  Daellenbach 

f  632,917 

H.  Smith  

632,763 

1  632,918 

H.  C.  L.  Holden  

622,047       L.  B.  Doman  

...  625,839 

S.  N.  Pond  

633,484       T.  C.  Kennedy  

...  621,572 

A.  Howard  

617,529       G.  W.  Lewis  

.  .  .  620,941 

F.  Hayot  

623,713       H,  P.  Maxim  

.  .  .  620,602 

C.  J.  F.  Mollet-Fontaine  and  \ 

•634,063       J'  A-Secor  

...  623,568 

L.  A.  C.  Letombe  S 

F.  H.  Smith  

...  636,298 

F.  Diirr  

625,387       H.  Smith  

...  624,555 

F,  C.  Hirsch  

622,469       E.  J.  Stoddard  

...  623,190 

H.  N.  Bickerton  and  H.  W.  \ 

•640,083       E.E.Truscott  

.  ..  617,372 

Bradley  i 

J.  Walrath  

...  632,859 

J.  W.  and  P.  L.  Tygard  

619,004 

/  617,978 

E.  J.  Stoddard  

623,224       A.  Winton  

.  .  ]  626,120 

A.  Mahon  

625,180 

(  636,6r6 

S.  W.  Zent  

637,317       S.  A.  Hasbrouck  

...  624,649 

C.  A.  Anderson   and   E.   A.  ) 

.  630  838       J-  W.  Eisenhuth  

•  •  •  620,431 

Ericksson  J 

E.    E.    Allyne    and    R.    ( 

'•    [  622,876 

J.  H.  Frew  

623,361           Anderson  

G.W.  Lewis  

621,110       C.  R.  Alsop  

618,972 

H.  J,  Perkins  

630,738       S.  A.Ayres.  

...  632,888 

J.  W.  Weeks  

635,624       E.  and  W.  F.  Bauroth  

...  617,388 

402 


PATENTS 


C.P.Blake  ................. 

'C.  W.  Bogart  ............... 

J.  O.  Brown  ................ 

F.  Burger  .................. 

W.  H.  and  J.  Butterworth  ____ 

O.  F.  Good  ................ 

E.  W.  Graef  ............... 

J.  D.  Hay  and  B.  M.  Bullock  . 

L.  J.  Hirt  ................. 


L.  S.  Kirker 
H.  A.  Knox 
A.  Lee 
P.  Murray 
A.  H.  Neale. 


R.,  Sr.,  and  R.  Nuttall,  Jr 


G.  Palm.. 
C.  Quast. 


631,003 
628,518 
635.294 
632,913 
624,750 
634,686 
622,891 
632,814 
620,926 
629,904 
627,338 
627,857 
634,529 
619,776 
639,683 
631,224 
640,018 
618,435 
624,975 


E.  Rappe 

J.  W.  Raymond. 
C.  C.  Riotte  . . 


W.  S.  Sharpneck. 


H.  Smith 

G.  S.  Strong 

T.  J.  Sturtevant 

A.  A.  Vansickle 

G.  A.  Whitcomb 

J.  Williams,  Jr 

E.  E.  Wolf 

C.  Hoerl 

G.  Dahlberg,  J.   Clicquennoi,  ( 

and  E.  Uhlin I 

J.  H.  Hamilton 


—IpOO — 


J.  W.  Eisenhuth |  640,890 

(  642,434 
J.  L.  Baillie  and  P.  B.  Verity  .  642,949 

J.  F.  Craig 644,004 

J.  F.  Duryea 646,399 

G.W.Lewis..  {640,674 

(  640,675 

T.  Malcolmson 642,143 

J.  A.  Secor. 640,71 1 

C.  Sintz 646,322 

G.  A.  Tuerk 641,659 

A.  Heil 645,293 

W.  A.  Kope 642,043 

f  640,393 

G.  W.Lewis J  640,394 

640,672 

[640,673 
A.  L.  Navone 642,706 

A.  T.  Otto 645,044 

G.  S.  Shaw. 641,156 

J.  Straszer 640,237 

P.  Robertson  andC.  Matson. .  641,727 

B.  M.  Aslakson 644,566 

A.  J.  Frith " 644,798 

E.  Thomson 642,176 

J.  E.  Thornton  and  J.  P.  Lea  .   644,951 
A.  G.  New 642,871 


L.  Charon  and  F.  Manaut. . .  . 
J.  G.  Lepper  and  W.  F.  Dial  . 

A.  Bink 

E.  Fahl 

H.  A.  Frantz 

C.  O.  Heggem 

C.  W.  Hunt 

A.  J.  Martin 

E.  A.  Sperry 

H.  Stommel 

G.  E.  Whitney 

G.  E.  Whitney  and  H.  Howard 

W.  O.  Worth 

A.  Olson.  . 


J.  W.  Lambert, 


620,080 
634,654 
636,478 
618,157 


633,339 
621,526- 


645.45s 
644,295 
644,843 
644,855 
644,590^ 
644,598 
641,514 
641,313 
643,258 
645,497 
642,771 
642,943. 
645,378 

643,525 
640,667 
640,668 


L.  Jones,  Jr. . 

F.  J.  Macey  . 
C.  R.  Alsop  . 

G.  W.  Lewis. 


H.  F.  Probert. 


D.  Drawbaugh 

W.   J.   Perkins  and  C.   H. 

Blomstrom , 

F.  R.  Simms. .  642,167 


640,252 
640,392 

640,395 
642,366 
642,562 
643,087 

643,002 


PATENTS. 


403 


W.  Banes , 

E.  T.  Headech 

J.  C.  Anderson 

J.  Craig,  Jr 

G.  A.  Fleury 

C.  A.  Scott 

T.  Cascaden,  Jr.,  and  T.  C. 

Menges 

A.  H.  Goldingham 

H.  Sutton 

W.  J.  Woodward  and  D. 

Barckdall 

J.  H.  Atterbury 

W.  R.  Dow 

W.  W.  Gerber 

J.  S.  Losch 

C.  A.  Miller 

C.  K.  Pickles  and  N.  W. 

Perkins,  Jr 


F.  W.  Toedt. 


A.  Martini 

E.  Funke 

J.  McLean 

H.  Swain 

H.  Crouan 

J.  Wickstrom 

A.  Adamson 

H.  T.  and  H.  A.  Dawson 

V.  R.  Stewart 

H.  A.  Bertheau 

C.  E.  Belcher 

T.  Croil 

T.  B.  Dooley 

J.  Greffe 

R.  Hagen 

F.  K.  Irving 

F.  A.  La  Roche.  ..' 

.A.  H.  Overman  and  J.  H. 

Bullard 

R.  M.  Owen 

L.  W.  Ravenez 

E.  S.  Sutch 

O.  Waechtershaeuser 

J.  A.  Ostenberg 

W.  J.  McDuff 

O.  Owens 

L.  Hutchinson . . 


644,027 
646,282 

651,741 
650,525 
651,966 
647,583 
652,470 

650,583 
650,736 

649.7I3 

652,382 
647,651 

652,539 
650,789 
652,544 

652,724 

650,549 
651,216 
651,875 
650,312 
646,452 
650,571 
651,237 
650,576 
651,062 
651,780 
650,661 
648,914 
650,816 
652,534 
651,323 
652,673 
646,982 
646,993 
652,278 

648,286 

652,486 
650,950 
648,059 

652,571 
648,520 
650,266 
646,867 
648,689 


E.  S.  Haines 652,104 

W.  F.  Davis 648,122 

W.  H.  Cotton 647,946 

D.  M.  Tuttle 649,778 

J.  C.  Anderson 651,742 

C.  E.  Duryea 649,441 

W.  E.  Gary 657,810 

C.  Hautier 656,020 

F.  C.  Olin 653,876 

T.  B.  Royse 653,040 

C.  W.  Shartle  and  C.  E.  Miller  658,594 

H.  Smith 657,576 

E.  C.  Wood 655,473 

G.  W.  Starr  and  J.  H.  Cogswell  657,140 

S.  F.  Beetz 657,384 

C.  R.  Daellenbach 653,379 

0.  J.  Fairchild 656,101 

H.  A.  Bertheau 655,186 

F.  J.  Sproehnle 653,971 

S.  Messerer 654,996 

V.  V.  Torbensen 653,854 

R.  H.  Little 656,823 

E.  Haynes  and  E.  Apperson . .  658,367 

M.  F.  Marmonier 657,226 

R.  A.  Frisbie 656,539 

G.  E.  Hoyt 657,934 

W.  J.  Baulieu 653,651 

C.  L.  Mayhew 652,909 

J.  J.  Simmonds 658,127 

J.  Rambaud t  654,356 

G.  Palm 654,761 

W.  E.  Simpson 658,595 

S.  W.  Rea 657,451 

F.  A.  Law 653,353 

L.  Witry 655,289 

G.  W.  Henricks 653,957 

R.  R.  von  Paller 655,269 

C.  H.  Blomstrom 657,055 

A.  C.  von  Fahnenfeld  and  E.  )  ^ 

S.  von  Wolfersgrun \    ' 

J.  G.  MacPherson 655,407 

G^  Kiltz 657,739 

R.  Diesel 654,140 

F.  A.  La  Roche 657,662 

1.  H.  Davis 657,760 

J.  G.  MacPherson 655,406 

H.  Wegelin 654,693 

G.  L.  Reenstierna  . , . , 65  5,66 T. 


404 


PATENTS. 


A.  J.  New  

656,143      G-  H.  Rogers  

660,338 

S.  A.  Hasbrouck  

654,894       C.  Bonjour  .  .  

660,41  2 

H.  C.  Thamsen  

654,818       F.  Diirr  

660,292 

L.    S.    Clarke,  W.    Morgan, 

,653501       A'Haves  

660,954 

and  J.  G.  Heaslet  

'                 J.  W.  Lambert  

660,778 

r  653,167       E.  T.  Birdsall  

660,786 

653,168       J.  W.  Lambert  

66l,l8l 

653,169       G.  L.  Reenstierna  

661,276 

C.  J.  Coleman  j 

653,  170       A.  Johnson  

66l,29I 

653,172       A.  and  E.  Boulier  

661,439 

657,516      T.  M.  and  F.  L.  Antisell  

66l,3OO 

657,899       F.  C.  Dyckhoff  

661,369 

^658,238       J.  B.  Rodger  

66l,078 

P.  J.  Collins  | 

655,853       L.  Charon  and  E.  Manaut  

661,235 

656,389      X.  de  la  Croix  

661,854 

E.  P.  Cowles  

654,716       J.  Day  

661,559 

J.  T.  Dougine  

655,329       N.  A.  Guillaume  

661,865 

C.  E.  Duryea  

653,224       M.  Flood  

662,189 

J.  W.  Eisenhuth  

656,396       F.  R.  Simms  

662,317 

C.  D.  P.Gibson  

656,962       A.  J.  Signer  

662,315 

654,797       T.  L.  and  T.  J.  Sturtevant  

662,040 

1 

658,068       A.  J.  Signor  

662,155 

H.  W.  Libbey  

654,741       G.  J.  Althamand  J.  Beattie,  Jr. 

662,l8l 

C.  A.Lieb  

653,102       G.  A.  Timblin  (designs)  

33,592 

J.  H.  Munson  

653,199       H.  B.  Steele  

662,631 

L.  J.  Phelps  

653,879       P.  Swenson  

662,507 

W.  Scott  

656,483       O.  F.  Good  

662,718 

C.  T.  Shoup  

658,046       M,  S.  Napier  

663,388 

F.  E.  and  F.  O.  Stanley  

657,71  1       H.  W.  Strauss  

663,106 

V.  V.  Torbensen  

653,855       A.  D.  Garretson  

663,091 

f  652,940       G.  A.  Tuerk  

663,798 

652,941       W.  H.  Cotton  663,653 

G.  E.  Whitney  J 

652,942       G.  Buck  

663,725 

652,943       L.  S.  Clarke  and  J.  G.  Heaslet 

663,729 

[652,944       F.  R.  Simms  and  R.  Bosch  .  .  . 

663,643 

W.  S.  Halsey  

659,027       H.  Smith  

663,475 

L.  H.  Nash  

658,858       C.  O.  White  

664,IIO 

J.  M.  Olsen  

659,095       A.  T.  Otto  

664,360 

E.  A.  Mitchell  

658,993       L.  H.  Nash  

664,025 

A.  A.  Williams  

659,426       C.  O.  White  

664,2OO 

W.  F.  Davis  

660,073       J.  Dougill  

664,134 

D.  E.  Barnard  

659,91  1       J.  W.  Eisenhuth  

664,018 

H.  D.  Weed  

659,944       H.  Sutton  

664,689 

P.  H.  Standish  

660,129       G.  Miari  and  F.  Giusti  

664,661 

F.  G.  Bates  

660,482       W.  K.  Freeman  

664,632 

PATENTS 


405 


— 1901 — 


W.  Maybach  668,111 

C.  E.  Dawson 668,954 

S.    Miller    667,846 

H.   L.   Arnold 666,838 

S.    M.   Zurawski 668,250 

O.    B.    Johnson 669,416 

E.    Courvoisier    670,311 

C.    R.    Daellenbach 665,881 

L.    H.    Solomon 665,665 

L.    F.    Burger 666,260 

J.   Walrath    669,272 

E.    Thompson    669,737 

T.    McMahon    670,803 

W.   O.   Worth 670,550 

W.    E.    Simpson 667,590 

H.    F.    Walman 666,368 

C.    F.    Bergman 665,849 

H.    L.   Arnold 666,839 

W.    H.    Aldrich 668,617 

Kopp  &  Preston. 674,421 

J.    A.    McLean 674,979 

G.   A.    Bronder 673,109 

J.  Eckhard   673,427 

W.    O.    Worth 673,809 

J.    Rourk    674,709 

M.   L.   Wood 676,523 

G.    L.    V.    Chauveau 671,160 

C.  C.  &  E.  A.  Riotte 671,934 

Schumm    &    Munzel 675,796 

J.    Doorenbos    672,615 

J.  A.  McLean 670,907 

H.    F.    Wallman 677,048 

H.    Schwarz    676,449 

J.  Sterba   672,432 

A.    T.    Stimson 677,001 

Tuck  &  Wassman 682,003 

E.    Butler     678,715' 

E.    T.    Birdsall 679,410 

C.  W.  Weiss 680,953 

C,   E,   Duryea 682,606 


W.    J.    Pugh 680,616 

A.  F.  Bardwell 680,907 

S.    W.    Zent 682,583 

W.  S.  Sharpneck 680,985 

E.  N.    Dickerson 681,111 

C.   C.    Bramwell 678,823 

R.    R.    Darling 679,367 

M.   W.   Jamieson..         ../  68l'7°4 

1  681,705 

Campbell    &    Hawkins 682,788 

B.  F.   Stewart 683,080 

V.    St.    John 683,152 

A.    C.    Wolfe 681,162 

O.    Snell    677,898 

F.  Reichenbach 682,567 

Toepel    &    Widmayer 682,822 

W.   B.   Cuthbertson 677,949 

J.   D.   McFarland 682,385 

A.    Tourand    687,084 

E.  J.    Wolf 683,886 

J.   Valentynowicz    684,011 

H.    Enge    686,806 

A.   Hayes    688,245 

F.  Burger   684,743 

W.   S.  Halsey 684,813 

M.  E.   Durman 687,678 

H.    M.    McCall 687,924 

C.  L.    Mayhew 688,426 

W.    G.    Marr 688,536 

M.    F.    Bates 689,351 

J.    Badeker 683,587 

E.    Caillavet    689,791 

L.    Genty    687,152 

H.  F.  Wallman 688,907 

C.    A.    Hirth 685,141 

C.   A.    Marrder 685,722 

Box  &  G.  Labedan 686,801 

J.  H.  Reed 688,335 

S.    M.    Williams 688,566 

J.   W.    Plimpton 683,705 


— January  to  July  i,  1902 — 


F.   D.   Sweet 690,481 

A.    D.    Richardson 690,610 

H.    F.    Wallmann 690,542 


F.  W.  Toedt. 


.J   g1'* 
\  691,084 

Thompson    691,017 


406 


PATENTS. 


C.    Robinson    691,489 

W.    J.    Pugh 692,071 

W.  A.   Swan 692,218 

T.    Myers    693,529 

G.   V.    Fetter 694,186 

W.  S.  &  C.  Hibbard 694,016 

A.    W.    Clayden 694,090 

H.  Junkers   694,552 

Freeman  &  Troop 694,735 

C.  F.  Lembke 694,557 

W.   F.   Davis 694,948 

W.  L.  Judson 695,731 

J.   D.   McFarland 696,251 

E.   Thompson 696,518 

P.    Burt    696,547 

J.    A.    McLean 697,649 

M.    N.    Hylland 698,285 


J.   V.    Rice 699,014 

R.   L.  Young 699,433 

F.    Durr    699,503 

J.  W.  Stanton 700,100 

W.  J.   Robb 700,241 

S.  S.  Rose .'..  700,243 

H.  A.   Bertheau 700,295 

A.   L.  Kull. 700,785 

J.    T.    Metcalfe 701,069 

D.    A.    Briggs 701,140 

F.   Reichenbach 701,505 

F.  L.   Nichols 702,375 

C.   W.    Kelsey 701,891 

J.    S.   Rogers 702,246 

J.   F.  Hobart 702,430 

F.  A.  L.  Sneckner 703,157 


INDEX 


ABSOLUTE  zero,  9 

Absorption  of  heat  by  walls,  12 

Acetylene  gas,  53-57 

Adiabatic  temperature,  ?j^A 

Air  and  gas  regulator,  70 

Air-cooled  motors,  180,  190,  371 

Air  pumps,  72,  301 

Alcohol  for  power,  57-59 

Atkinson  engine,  41 

Atomizers,  73-8o,  302,  303,  312,  342 

Apple  ignition  dynamo,  142 

Automobile,  325,  347 


B 


BACK  fire,  151 
Barnet's  engine,  3. 
Batteries,  130,  141 
Beau  de  Rocha,  3,  4 
Bicycle,  372,  373 
Boyle's  law,  8,  10 
Brake,  Prony,  161 

rope,  164 

strap,  163 

Brown  gas  vacuum  engine,  3 
Buildings,  vibrating,   171 
Bunsen  burner,  103 


CAM,  differential,  100 
Carburetters,  vaporizers,  60,  72 
Cards,  Atkinson,  33 

constant  volume,  14,  16 

Diesel,  37 


four-cycle  type,  28.   34,  35 

full  load,  34 

half  load,  35 

Lenoir,  19,  21 

mean  pressure,  36 

kerosene  mptor,  37 

Otto  four-cycle,  32 

test,  175 

perfect  cycle,  23 

Priestman,   303 

testing,   175 
Carnot's  cycle,  23 

variable,  30 
Carriage,  325,  347 
Centrifugal  clutch,  144 
Causes  of  loss  and  inefficiency,  38 
Clerks'  experiments,  8,  22,  39 
Clutch  pulley,  195 
Combustion  chamber,  39 

shrinkage  and  products,  35,  47 

time  and  pressure,  14 
Connecting  rod,  194 
Comparisons,  effective  power,  i,  2 

computations,  20-29 
Cooling  water  of  cylinder,  40 
Cost  of  operation,  204,  216 
Crossley  engine,  41,  43 
Current  breaker,  114 
Cycles,  19,  22,  23 
Cylinder  capacity,  81,  82 

diameter  and  stroke,  83 

dimensions,  I,  39   . 

double-acting,  259 

formulas,  87 

lubrication,   146-148 
ratios,  86 

two-cycle,  218 


408 


INDEX. 


DE  DION  motor,  190 

Details  and  sections,  182,  190,  210, 
214,  218,  223,  224,  264,  274,  275' 
281,  283,  287,  312,  314,  319,  322, 
34i,  342,  346,  349,  357,  359,  365, 
370,  374,  375,  377 

Differential  cam,   100 

Diffusion,  time,  67 

Dimensions  of  motors,  84,  95 

Double-acting  motor,  258 

Double  port  valve,  101 

Dynamo   generators,    115,    j3I,    I34 
142 

Dynamo  section,   143 


ECCENTRIC  gear,  98 
Efficiencies,   heat,  25 

engine,  19-24,  57,  58,  366 
Electric  ignition,   110-115,   121-136 
Electric  lighting  economy,  42,  45 
Electric  plants,  278,  308,  318,  330 
Electrodes,  218,  233,  236 
Engine  parts,  85 
testing,  173,  176 
trials,  41,  43 

Evaporation   of  gasoline,   66. 
Examples,   computation,   n,   12,  84 
Expansion,  gas,   10 
Explosion   at   constant   volume,    14, 

16 

Explosive  engine  testing,    173-177 
Explosive  pressures,  86 
Explosive  temperatures,  86 
Explosive  volumes,  gas  and  air,  16 
17 


FIGURED  dimensions,  85 
Fly-wheels,  85,  86 
Fly  wheel  governors,  276 
Foot  pounds  of  power,  48 
Formulas,  8,  11,  26,  27,  56,  87 
Formulas,  horse  power,  84 
Fuel  problem,  386 


GAS  ENGINES.— See  oil  engines. 
Allman,  267 
American,  256 
Bach  us,  261 
Charter,  204 
Columbus,  285 
Clifton,  343 
Cornell,  197 
Dayton,  237 
Daimler,  288 
Diesel,  362 
Fairbanks,   347 

Fairbanks-Morse,  247 
oos,  234 
amilton,  335 
4 

kroyd,  310 
Lambert,  281 
Lawson,  304 
Lightweight,  322 
Lowell,   345 
Lozier,  367 
Marsh,   371 
Mietz  &  Weiss,  337 
Mitchell,  373 
Naphtha,  356 
Nash,  270 
New   Era,    198 
New  York,  219 
Olds,  291 
Otto,  325 
Petter,  324 
Pierce,  201 
Priestman,  298 
Prouty,  279 
Racine,   308 
Raymond,  212 
Royal,  196 
Ruger,  254 
R  &  V,  316 
Secor,  381 
Sintz,  216 
Smalley,  221 
Springfield^  229 
Truscott,  374 
Victor,  238 
Vreeland,  260 


INDEX. 


409- 


Watkins,  352 

Weber,  294 

Webster,  227 

Westinghouse,  358 

White  &  Middleton,  321 

Wolverine,  242 
Gas  and  air  mixtures,  17 
Gas  engines,  various  makes,  196-374 
Gas   engine  troubles,    157 
Gas  and  electric  lighting,  43 
Gas,  acetylene,  53-56 

coal,   47 

natural,  49 

oil,  49,  50 

producer,  50 

semi-water,  51 

water,   51 

Gases  of  combustion,  8 
Gases,  various  values,  48 
Gas  gravity  regulator,  70 
Gasoline,  51,  52,  56,  66 

pump,  201 

Gay  Lussuc's  law,  9 
Gear,  worm  cam,  ratchet,  97 

cam,  99,  100 

ring  valve,  98 

spiral,  99 
Generators,  magneto,   115,   131,   136, 

142 

Governor   adjustment,    152 
Governors  and  valve  gear,  90-102 
Governors,     centrifugal,     102,     144, 

1 88,   200,   203,   360 
Governor,  inertia,  93 

pick-blade,  92 

pendulum,  95,  100,  262,  292 

Robey,  90 

vibrating,  94 
Gravity  regulator,  70 


Hoisting  engine,  296 
Horse  power  of  motors,  84,  85 
Hot  tube  igniters,  118 
Hugon  motor,  3 


I 


Indicator,   167 

Indicator  cards,   14,    16,    19,  21,   23, 

28,  32,  33,  34,  35,  37,  175,  303 
Igniters  and  exploders,  103,  136,  233 
Igniter,  Otto,  103 

piston,  105 

slide    igniter,    107 

tube,  106-110,  118-120 
Ignition,    electric,    110-115,    121-136,. 

369 
Ignition  dynamos,  131-136 

hammer  spark,  122 

gear,    115,    226,    231,    233 
Ignition  pointers,  137,141 

plugs,  121,  122 

timing  valves,   116,   117 

wiring,  130,  136 
Induction  coil,  126-129 
Isothermal  curve,  8 


JOULE'S  law,  12 

Jump  spark  coil,  126-129 

Jump  spark  notes,  140,  141 

K 

KANE-PENNINGTON  motor,  31 
Kerosene,    52 

Kerosene  motors,  219,  298,  310,  337, 
339,  381 


H  L 

HAMMER  spark,  122  LAUNCH  details,  332,  380 
Heat  efficiencies,  25-29  Otto,  332 

formulas,  26-28  Truscott,  380 

units,  40,  47,  48  vapor  motor,  355 

Heat  units  in  explosive  mixtures,  17    Law  of  thermodynamics,  9 

Heat  value,  21  Lenoir  motor,  3,  332 

Historical  progress,  3  Lenoir  efficiency,  19 


INDEX. 


Light  in  the  cylinder,  8 
Lighting  economy,  42-48 
Loss  and  inefficiency,  38 
Lubricators,    145-148 

M 

MANAGEMENT  of  motors,  149-159 

Magneto  igniters,   115,   131-133,  369 

Marine  motors,  217-219,  221,  244, 
246,  323,  33i,  333,  343,  344,  345, 
356,  367,  374,  377 

Material    of   power,    47-59 

Measurement  of  power,  160-170 

Measurement  of  speed,  165 

Mechanical  equivalent,  9 

Mixtures  and  pressures,  8 

Motor  bicycle,  372,  373 

Motor  carriage,  325 

Motor  details,  190-210,  214,  218, 
219,  223,  224,  264,  274,  275,  281, 
283,  287,  312,  314,  319.  322,  325, 
341,  342,  346,  349,  357,  359,  365, 
370,  374,  375,  377 

Motor  parts,  85 

Motor  pointers,    156 

Motor  starters,  250,  251 

Motors,  triplex,  379 

Mufflers,  exhaust.  88.  89 


N 

NAPHTHA,  51,  52 
Naphtha  engine,  357 
Naphtha  launches,  354,  355 
Nash  engine  trials,  44,  45 
Nickel  alloy  tubes,  119 


PATENTS,  number  of,  4-6 
Patent  list,  1875  to  1902,  392 
Pendulum    governor,    100 
Petroleum  products,   51,   52 
Phenomena  of  explosion,  8 
Plugs,  119 

Pointers  on  valves  and  ignition,  137 
Pointers  on  explosive  motors,   156- 

159 

Porcelain  tubes,  120 
Portable  engines,  313 
Pressures  and  temperatures,  86 
Pressure  and  volume,  8-u 
Products  of  combustion,  35 
Prony  brake,  161 
Propeller,  reversing,  376 
Pulley  clutch,  195 
Pumping  plants,   198,  208,  211   266, 

307,  315,  340 
Push  rod  ratchet,  97 


RATIOS,  compression,  86 
Ratchet   push   rod,   97 
Ratio  of  expansion,  9,  10 
Rating  of  English  engines,  83 
Raymond  engine  trial,  45 
Reducing  pulley,  170 
Regulator  and  gas  bag,  284 
Retarded  combustion,  30 
Reversing  propeller,  376 
Ring  valve  gear,  98 
Rope  brake,  164 
Rotating  spark  brake,  112 


OIL    engines,    various    make, 

298,  310,  337,  339,  38i 
Oils  for  cylinder,  148 
Oil  pump,  342 
Otto  card,  32 

Otto  and  Langdon  progress,  3, 
Otto  launch,  332 
Otto  slide  valve,  104 


SELF- STARTING  motors,  250,  251 
219,    Simplex  engine,  32     m  '• 
Sizes  of  motor  parts,  85 
Shaft  bearings,  341,  351 
Shrinkage  by  combustion,  35 
Sparking  coils,  113,  126-129 
4        Spark,  continuous,  34 

Spark  break.  111-115,  320 
Spark,  intermittent,  34 


INDEX. 


Sparking  dynamo  details,  143 
Sparking  gear,  376 
Sparker,  Rice,  124 
Specific  heat,  gas,  air,  20,  47 
Spiral  gear,  99 
Strap  brake,  163 
Stratification  of  mixture,  13 


TABLE,  clearance  ratios,  86 

cylinder   capacity,   82 

material  of  power,  48 

mixtures  gas  and  air,  16 

efficiencies,   speed,   31 

motor  power,  194 

motor  parts,  85 

natural  gas,  49 

petroleum  products,  52 

rating  of  motors,  83 

explosion    at    constant    volume, 
14,  16 

explosive    temperatures,    17,   29 
Tachometer,  166 
Tangye  engine  trial,  43 
Temperature  and  pressures,  86 
Temperature,  jacket  water,  32 
Testing,  173-177 
Timing  valves,  116,  117 
Theory  of  explosive  motors,   7-17 
Theory  of  combustion,   13 
Time  of  explosion,  14-16,  31 
Tubes,  ignition,  119 
Types  of  explosive  motors,  178-194 
Types. 

the  Day,  178 

Root,  179 

De  Dion,  190 

Dudbridge,    187 

Nash,  191 

Diesel,  192 

non-vibrating,  180 

Lewis  motor,  181 

Oil  City,  182 

Lazier,  185 

rib  cooled,  180 


valve  head,  183 
Wayne,  184 

U 

USEFUL  effect  from  speed,  30 
Utilization  of  heat,  18 

V 

VALVE  gear,  97-102,  286,  287,  361 
Valve  gear,  Rice,  125 
Valves,  101,  182,  183,  184-187 
Valve  chest,  200 
Valve  gear,  ratchet,  97 
Valves  and  ignition  points,  137 
Valves,  rotating,  213 
Valves,  sizes,  138 
Various  types  of  engines  and 

motors,  196-391 
Vaporizers    and    atomizers.     60-80, 

302,  342 
Vapor  gas,  69 
Vehicle  motor,  190 
Velocity  of  explosion,  14 
Vibration  of  buildings,  171 
Volume,  constant,  9 
Volumes,  gas  and  air,  14,  16 

W 

WALL  cooling,  30 

surface,  33 

Water  for  cooling,  40 
Water  vapor  from  combustion,  47 
Wiring,  HI,  130,  136,  144 
Work  of  expansion,  9 
Worm  cam  push  rod,  97 
Worm  gear,  200 


YACHTS,  332,  354,  380 


ZERO,  absolute,  9 


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IF  INTERESTED  WRITE  FOR  "CIRCULAR  H." 


Gas  Engine 

Construction. 

A  Practical  Treatise  Describing  in  Every  Detail 
the  Actual  Building  of  a  Gas  Engine. 

BY 

HENRY  V.  A.  PARSELL,  Jr.,  Mem.  A.  I.  Elec.  Eng., 
and  ARTHUR  J.  WEED,  M.  E. 

Twenty -five  Illustrated  Chapters.      Large  8vo. 

Handsomely  Illustrated  and  Bound.      3oo  pages. 


Price,      =  $2.5O. 

This  book  treats  of  the  subject  more  from  the  standpoint  of  practice 
than  that  of  theory.  The  principles  of  operation  of  G-as.  Engines  are 
clearly  and  simply  described,  and  then  the  actual  construction  of  a 
half-horse  power  engine  is  taken  up,  step  by  step,  showing  in  detail 
the  making  of  a  Gas  Engine. 

First  come  directions  for  making  the  patterns  ;  this  is  followed  by 
all  the  details  of  the  mechanical  operations  of  finishing  up  and  fitting  the 
castings,  and  is  profusely  illustrated  with  beautiful  engravings  of  the 
actual  work  in  progress,  showing  the  modes  of  chucking,  turning,  boring 
and  finishing  the  parts  in  the  lathe,  and  also  plainly  showing  the  lining 
up  and  erection  of  the  engine. 

Dimensioned  working  drawings  give  clearly  the  sizes  and 
forms  of  the  various  details. 

The  entire  engine,  with  the  exception  of  the  fly-wheels,  is  designed 
to  be  made  on  a  simple  eight-inch  lathe,  with  slide  rest. 

The  book  closes  with  a  chapter  on  American  practice  in  Gas  Engine 
design  and  gives  simple  rules  so  that  anyone  can  figure  out  the  dimen- 
sions of  similar  engines  of  other  powers. 

Every  illustration  in  this  book  is  new  and  original,  having 
been  ma  .e  expressly  for  this  work. 

*^*  Copies  of  this  book  sent  prepaid  to  any  address  in  ^he  world 
on  receipt  of  price. 

NORMAN    W.    HENLEY   &    CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

132  NASSAU  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


JUST   PUBLISHED. 


HORSELESS  VEHICLES 
AUTOnOBILESA- 

flOTOR  CYCLES 


OPERATED   BY 


Steam,  Hydro-Carbon,  Electric  and  Pneumatic  Motors 


By  GARDNER  D.  HISCOX,  M.  E. 

Author  of  "Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Engines,"  and  "Hechanical  Movements,  Powers, 
Devices  and  Appliances." 

Nineteen  Illustrated  Chapters.     316  Illustrations 
Large  8vo.    Cloth.    4OO  pages 

Price,  $3.00 


A  Practical  Treatise  for  Automobilists,  Manuf acturers,  Cap- 
italists, Investors,  Promoters,  and  everyone  interested  in  the 
development,  care  and  use  of  the  Automobile. 

This  work  is  written  on  a  broad  basis,  and  comprises  in  its  scope  a  full  description 
(with  illustrations  and  details),  of  the  progress  and  manufacturing  advance  of  one  of  the 
most  important  innovations  of  the  times,  contributing  to  the  pleasure  and  business  con- 
venience of  mankind. 

The  make-up  and  management  of  Automobile  Vehicles  of  all  kinds  are  very  liberally 
treated,  and  in  a  way  that  will  be  appreciated  by  those  who  are  reaching  out  for  a  better 
knowledge  of  this  new  era  in  locomotion. 

This  book  is  up  to  date  and  very  fully  illustrated  with  various  types  of 
Horseless  Carriages,  Automobiles,  and  Motor  Cycles,  with  many  details  of  the 
same. 

It  also  contains  a  complete  list  of  the  Automobile  and  Motor  Manufacturers  with 
their  addresses,  as  well  as  a  list  of  patents  issued  since  1856  on  the  Automobile  industry. 


NORMAN   W.  HENLEY  &    CO.  Publishers 
132  Nassau  Street,   New  York 

Copies  sent  prepaid  to  any  address  in  the  world  on  receipt  of  price. 

^^^S^s 
^        OF  THE        *£ 

UNIVERSITY 


OF  .// 

i-/^ov\\N  ^S 


-Section  VII.    Hydraulic  Power  and  Devices.—  Water  Wheels,  Turbines. 
vernors,  Impact  Wheels,  Pumps,  Rotary  Pumps,  Siphons,  Water  Lifts,  Eject- 
ors, Water  Rams,  Meters,  Indicators,  Pressure  Regulators,  Valves,  Pipe  Joints, 


MECHANICAL   MOVEMENTS, 

POWERS,    DEVICES,   AND   APPLIANCES. 

By  GARDNER  D.  HISCOX,  fl.E., 
Author  of  "Gas,   Gasoline,  and  Oil   Engines." 

8vo.   Over  400  Pages.    1649  Illustrations,  with  Descriptive  Text. 
PRICE   $3.00. 

A  dictionary  of  Mechanical  Movements,  Powers,  Devices,  and  Appliances,  with 
1649  illustrations  and  explanatory  text.  This  is  a  new  work  on  illustrated  mechanics, 
mechanical  movements,  de.'ices,  and  appliances,  covering  nearly  the  whole  range 
of  the  practical  and  inventive  field,  for  the  use  of  Mechanics,  Inventors,  Engineers, 
Draughtsmen,  and  all  persons  interested  in  mechanical  contrivances. 

SBJOTTOIVS. 

Section  I.    Mechanical  Powers.—  Weights,  Revolution  of  Forces,  Pressures, 

Levers,  Pulleys,  Tackle,  etc. 
Section  II.    Transmission   of  Power.—  Ropes,  Belts,  Friction  Gear,  Spur. 

Bevel,  and  Screw  Gear,  etc. 
Section  III.    Measurement  of  Power.-Speed,  Pressure,  Weight,  Numbers, 

Quantities,  and  Appliances. 
Section  IV.    Steam  Power-  Boilers  and  Adjuncts.-Eneines.  Valves  and 

Valve  Gear,  Parallel  Motion  Gear,  Governors  and  Engine  Devices,  Rotary  En- 

gines, Oscillating  Engines 
Section  V.    Steam  Appliances.-Injectors,  Steam  Pumps,  Condensers,  Sepa- 

rators, Traps,  and  Valves 
Section  VI.    Motive   Power—  Gas   and  Gasoline  Engines.—  Valve  Gear 

and  Appliances,  Connecting  Rods  and  Heads. 
n  VII.    Hydraulic  Power  and  De 

Governors,  Impact  Wheels,  Pumps,  Rotary  Pumps,  Siphons,  Water  Lifts,  Eject- 

ors, Water 
•  Filters,  etc. 
Section  VIII.    .Mr  Power  Appliances.—  Wind  Mills,  Bellows,  Blowers,  Air 

Compressors,  Compressed  Air  Tools,  Motors,  Air  Water  Lifts,  Blow  Pipes,  etc. 
Section  IX.    Electric  Power  and  Construction.  -Generators,  Motors,  Wir- 

ing, Controlling  and  Measuring,  Lighting,  Electric  Furnaces,  Fans,  Search  Light 

and  Electric  Appliances. 
Section   X.    Navigation    and  Roads.—  Vessels,  Sails,   Rope  Knots,  Paddle 

Wheels,  Propellers,  Road  Scraper  and  Roller,  Vehicles,  Motor  Carriages,  Tricy- 

cles, Bicycles,  and  Motor  Adjuncts. 
Section  XI.    Gearing.—  Racks  and  Pinions,  Spiral,  Elliptical,  and  Worm  Gear, 

Differential  and  Stop-Motion  Gear,  Epicyclical  and  Planetary  Trains,  "Fer- 

guson's "  Paradox. 
Section  XII.    Motion  and  Devices  Controlling  Motion.—  Ratchets  and 

Pawls,  Cams,  Cranks.  Intermittent  and  Stop  Motions,  Wipers,  Volute  Cams, 

Variable  Cranks,  Universal  Shaft  Couplings,  Gyroscope,  etc. 
Section  XIII.    Horological.—  Clock  and  Watch  Movements  and  Devices. 
Section  XIV.    Mining.—  Quarrying.  Ventilation,  Hoisting,  Conveying,  Pulver 

izing,  Separating,  Roasting,  Excavating,  and  Dredging. 
Section  XV.    Mill  and  Factory  Appliances.-Hangers,  Shaft  Bearings.  Ball 

Bearings,  Steps,  Couplings,  Universal  and  Flexible  Couplings,  Clutches,  Speed 

Gears,  Shop  Tools,  Screw  Threads,  Hoists,  Machines,  Textile  Appliances,  etc. 
Section  XVI.    Construction  and  Devices.—  Mixing,  Testing,  Stump  and  Pile 

Pulling,  Tackle  Hooks,  Pile  Driving.  Dumping  Cars,  Stone  Grips,  Derricks,  Con- 

veyor, Timber  Splicing,  Roof  and  Bridge  Trusses,  Suspension  Bridges. 
Section  XVII.    Draughting  Devices.—  Parallel   Rules,  Curve   Delineators, 

Trammels,  Ellipsographs,  Pantographs,  etc. 
Section   XVIII.    Miscellaneous  Devices.-Animal  Power.   Sheep  Shears, 

Movements  and  Devices.  Elevators,  Cranes.  Sewing,  Typewriting  and  Printing 

Machines,  Railway  Devices,  Trucks,  Brakes,  Turntables,  Locomotives,  Gas,  Gas 

Furnaces,  Acetylene  Generators,  Gasoline  Mantle  Lamps,  Fire  Arms,  etc. 

V  Prepaid  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price 

&  CO,,  Publish  era, 

132  NASSAU  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


JUST    PUBLISHED. 

COMPRESSED    AIR 

ITS    PRODUCTION,    USES    AND    APPLICATIONS. 

BY   GARDNER    D.    HISCOX,    M.E. 
Author  of  "Gas,  Gasoline  and  Oil  Engines,"  "Mechanical  Movements,"  Etc.,  Etc. 

I^arge  Octavo.    820  Pages.    545  Illustrations. 
Bound  in   Cloth.   Price  $5.00.     Half  Morocco   Binding,   Price  $6.50. 


A  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  of  compressed  air,  comprising  its  physical  and 
operative  properties  from  a  vacuum  to  its  liquid  form.  Its  thermodynamics,  compres- 
sion, transmission,  expansion,  and  its  uses  for  power  purposes  in  engineering,  mining 
and  manufacturing  work.  Air  compressors,  air  motors,  air  tools,  air  blasts  for  cleaning 
and  painting.  The  sand  blast,  air  lifts  for  pumping  water,  oils  and  acids,  submarine 
work,  aeration  of  water,  railway  appliances  and  propulsion.  The  air  brake,  pneumatic 
tube  transmission,  refrigeration  and  cold  rooms.  The  hygiene  of  compressed  air,  its 
liquefaction  and  phenomena,  including  forty  tables  of  the  physical  properties  of  air,  its 
compression,  expansion  and  volumes  required  for  various  kinds  of  work,  and  a  list  of 
patents  on  compressed  air  from  1875  to  date. 

These  forty  air  tables  cover  most  of  the  relations  of  our  atmosphere  and  its  con- 
tained moisture  in  its  various  conditions  from  a  vacuum  to  its  highest  pressure  and  its 
power  for  work  ;  its  final  liquefaction  and  the  phenomena  of  extreme  cold. 

The  tables  are  fully  explained  and  the  formulas  given  and  worked  out.  The 
thermodynamic  formulas  for  air  compression  and  expansion  are  given  in  a  precise  form 
with  full  explanations  and  worked  out  examples,  so  that  anyone  can  solve  the  problems 
in  air  compression,  transmission,  expansion  and  the  power  required  in  atmospheric  work. 


CHAPTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 

II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VIL 

VIII. 
IX. 
X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 


Historical  Progress  of  Air  Work 

Physical  Properties 

Air  in  Motion  and  Its  Force 

Air  Pressure  below  Atmospheric  Pressure 

Flow  of  Air  Under  Pressure 

Power  of  the  Wind 

isothermal  Compression  and  Expansipn  of 

Air,  its  Law,  Diagrams  and  Formulas 
Thermodynamics 

Adiabatic  Compression  and  Expansion 
Compressed  Air  Indicator  Card 
Actual  Work  of  Compressor 
Multi-Stage  Air  Compression 
Expansion  of  Compressed  Air 
Transmission  of  Power  by  Compressed  Air 
Reheating  and  Its  Work 
The  Compressed  Air  Motor 
Efficiency  of  Compressed  Air  at  High  Alti- 
tudes 
Air  Compressors 


CHAP.  XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 
XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 

XXXV. 
XXXVI. 


Air  Compressors  of  Various  Makes— Can. 

Air  Compressors-  Continued 

Air  Compressors — Continued 

Compressed  Air  in  Mining,  Rock  Drills 

Pneumatic  Tools 

Pneumatic  Tools—  Continued 

Air  Pyrometer 

Compressed  Air  in  Railway  Service 

Pneumatic  Sheep  Shearing 

The  Compressed  Air  Blast 

Compressed  Air  in  the  Bessemer  Con- 
verter and  Blast  Furnace 

Pneumatic  System  of  Tube  Transmission 

Compressed  Air  in  Warfare 

Compressed  Air  for  Raising  Water 

Refrigeration  by  Vacuum 

Hygiene  of  Compressed  Air 

Liquid  Air  and  Its  Generation 

A  list  of  patents  on  compressed  air 
from  1875  to  July,  1901. 


application. 


'**  Copies  of  this  book,  prepaid  to  any  address  in  the  world,  on  receipt  of  price. 

r  Catalogue  of  Scientific  and  Practical  Books,  sent  free  to  any  address  on 


NORMAN  W.  HENLEY  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

15  Beekman  Street,  New  York. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


MAY  18  1948 


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